Heldighed i fremtiden

True love means spouse’s loyalty to end of life

2009-05-07T06:27:00.000-07:00

Kald det kærlighed
kald det lige hvad du vil
ÅhhhuuuÅhh
der findes ingen ord
ingen ord der helt slår til
så kald det lige hvad du vil

Vi to kan overleve næsten alt
undtagen det der aldrig rigtig blev fortalt
Tag mig ikke som et gidsel
tag mig helt og ikke halvt
for at elske rigtigt
skal jeg være nøgen
den drøm der kun forbli'r en drøm, den er en løgn

Call it love
Call what you really want
Ahhhuuuahh
There can not be found such word
No word that wholly describes it
So call it what ever you really want

We both can survive on almost everything
Except something, it must never be spoken
Don’t take me as a hostage
Take me as a whole and not half of them
For to have a truly love I shall be naked
The dream only becomes a dream, There is a lie

The above lyrics are taken from Lars Lilholt’s song called “Kald det kærlighed”, one of my favorite Danish singers. In other part lyrics, he also mentioned that the difference between “love and hate; it is just a thin line”. As the anger comes, we fail to remember all kindness and proclaim as the right one of all.
For the trustworthiness is something rare at the present time, therefore I would like to share the below articles, hopefully it could help anyone out there understand how important love and trust should be as a couple. Betrayal, hatred and rage are merely parts of Satan’s persuasion that bring us to most evil devastation.

Man Awakens From 19-Year Coma

A railway worker who emerged from a 19-year coma woke to a radically altered Poland and is learning to adapt to his new life, Polish media reported.He didn't come out of his coma until Sunday June 3 2007 when he opened his eyes to see his devoted wife Gertruda's face looking at him. She cared for him all through his coma. Mr. Grzebski was given only about two years to live after he slipped into unconsciousness in 1988 and doctors discovered he had a tumor on his brain. But he remained in good health due to the tireless efforts of his saintly wife Gertruda. She fed and washed her husband's motionless body every day and moved him every hour to prevent bedsore infections.
"I wake up at 7 a.m. and I watch TV," Jan Grzewski, 65, told TVN24 Television over the weekend, smiling slightly as he lay in bed at his home in the northern city of Dzialdowo."I could not talk or do anything, now it's much better," he said in a weak but clear voice, some two months emerging from his coma.
Wojciech Pstragowski, a rehabilitation specialist, said Grzewski was shocked at the changes in Poland's economy — especially its stores: "He remembered shelves filled with mustard and vinegar only" under communism.Poland shed communism in 1989 and has developed democracy and a market economy.In 1988, Grzewski fell into a coma after he was injured attaching two train carriages. Doctors also found cancer in his brain and said he would not live, according to the local daily Gazeta Dzialdowska.When doctors could do no more, Grzewski's wife Gertruda took him home and cared for him, Gazeta said."I would fly into a rage every time someone would say that people like him should be euthanized, so they don't suffer," she told Gazeta. "I believed Janek would recover," she said, using an affectionate version of his name.Last year, she noticed that he was trying to speak, Gazeta said. He returned to the hospital and came out of the coma some two months ago."At the start, his speech was very unclear, now it is improving daily," Pstragowski said. "If he continues to make such progress, he will soon be able to walk.""I am sure that without the dedication of his wife, the patient would not have reached us in the (good) shape that he did," Pstragowski said.

TV ads and fashion are all new concepts for Jan. He is amazed at the colorful streets and the goods, and says the world is a much prettier place now.

These are just some of the world events that he missed while he was sleeping:

1989 - Soviet troops pull out of Afghanistan
The personal computer (PC) was launched for public purpose 1989
Berlin wall comes down 1990
First digital mobile phone call 1991
First Gulf War 1993
Bill Clinton becomes US president 1997
Princess Diana dies in Paris crash 2001
September 11, 2003
Second Gulf War
Etc

The wife who never gave up on him said she cried and prayed a lot throughout the long and lonely coma years. "Those who came to see us kept asking, 'When is he going to die?' But he's not dead," Gertruda said. Delighted that her Ian has now rejoined the world, she added: "This is my reward for all the care, faith and love."

++++++++

Husband's love, care help end 30-yr coma

A Chinese woman has awakened from a 30-year coma and doctors give much of the credit to her husband's constant love and care, officials in Beijing say.
Zhao Guihua of E'zhou in Hubei province lapsed into a coma three decades ago after an accident. After two operations, her husband, Chen Dulin, took over and cared for her the rest of the way, the China Daily reported.
Then, quite unexpectedly, she woke up. Doctors say Zhao's blood pressure and heart and lungs are stable.
Chen is now 77 and recently was selected as one of the province's model husbands. And he's still talking every day to the love of his life.

Soursop fruit's leaves are anticancer of Prostate, Pancreas & Lung

2008-12-25T13:40:00.000-08:00

The soursop fruit (Annona Muricata) is not merely protecting our health, but in a research of Dr. Jerry Mclaughlin from Purdue University, USA, soursop fruit's leaves are anticancer. His research had proven that the leaves of this Annonaceae family contained active essence to kill cancer cells without defecting our body. The active essence pumps up the P-glycoprotein to produce anticancer essence or chemotherapy. Dr. Reza Tirtawinata, Fruit Specialist in Bogor, West Java - Indonesia, advises to consume 200 ml of boiling water-soursop leaves' extract two times a day to destroy cancer wholly (Trubus 462 - May 2008)

The Danger of Toksoplasmosis Gondii Virus Towards Pregnancy

2008-12-04T18:56:00.000-08:00

Edited by Tachsin F.

TORCH (Tokso, rubella, cytomegalovyrus and herpes) The Danger of TORCH During Pregnancy If you are fond of pets at home, or meat lover, it is recommended to do test of TORCH (Tokso, rubella, cytomegalovyrus and herpes). The TORCH test could divulge the toksoplasmosis gondii virus that it might disturb the development and growth of foetus (US = fetus).

This kind of virus is usually spread by cats, birds, rabbits, and as well as half-cooked meat, eggs, fruit and vegetables were contaminated by feces (most farmers in Asia still use human's dirt (feces) as fertilizer for their vegetables and plants. The probability of being infected on first third-semester is small (15 %), but the defect level is serious from disabled fetus to death case.
Tokso is the symptom through disabilities upon fetus such as brain defect, eye's disorder, systematic problems like pale, yellow-colored skin, fever, enlarging liver and spleen or even bleeding.

Info Kesehatan

2008-11-29T19:09:00.000-08:00

Ketan Hitam Sehatkan Jantung
Sekali menyantap ketan hitam, 2 tujuan tercapai. Penganan itu lezat sekaligus berfaedah sebagai antiarterogenik - alias melancarkan aliran darah jantung. Begitulah riset Wenhua Ling dari Departemen Ilmu Gizi, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China. Ia menemukan rebusan ketan hitam berefek antiarterogenik atau pelancar aliran darah tersumbat. Riset melibatkan 20 tikus. Sebagian kelompok diberi 300 mg ketan hitam, sedangkan lainnya tanpa suplemen apa pun. Hasilnya, suntikan lemak tinggi tidak membentuk plak pada arteri tikus yang diberi ketan hitam. Tikus tanpa ketan, terdapat plak 35 %. Ketan hitam mengandung antosianin sianidin-3-glukosida serta peonidin-3-glukosida. Menurut Wenhua konsumsi rutin Oryza Glutinosa memperbaiki kinerja jantung. Caranya dengan menurunkan serum trigliserida, total kolesterol, dan non-HDI, kolesterol, sekaligus menyeimbangkan plak pada manusia usia senja yang kurang apoprotein E. (Trubus 462 - Mei 2008)

Apel Dan Ikan Cegah Asma Pada Janin
Saat hamil konsumsilah apel dan ikan agar bayi yang lahir tidak rentan penyakit asma dan alergi pernapasan lain. Hal itu dibuktikan Saskia Willers, dari Ultrecht University, Belanda. Penelitiannya melibatkan 1.212 anak berusia 5 tahun dari ibu yang mengkonsumsi apel dan ikan saat hamil. Hasilnya, anak-anak itu sama sekali tak terjangkit asma atau alergi pernapasan. Hal itu disebabkan senyawa flavonoid apel dan senyawa omega 3 ikan mampu menghadang penyebab penyakit pernapasan di janin. (Trubus 463 - Juni 2008)

Making Fish Waste Become Kerosene Replacement

2008-11-29T19:05:00.000-08:00

Making Fish Waste Become Kerosene Replacement

Boil some fish waste in huge casserole
Some Fat appear in the surface
Take the fat by using a putter / big spoon and separated into another casserole
Add Sulphuric Acid on the fat, heat them up and stir gently
Few minutes, pour some caustic soda and methylated spirit
Latter on it will appear 2 liquid layers of Methyl Esther and glycerin
Collect the Methyl Esther with a putter / a big spoon that it becomes visible on the surface
This methyl Esther can be utilized as the Kerosene Replacement for ordinary stove

Olah Limbah Ikan Jadi Minyak Tanah Pengganti

Rebus limbah ikan
Lemak muncul dipermukaan atas
Ambil lemak dengan sendok dan sisihkan
Tambahkan asam sulfat, panaskan dan aduk
Tambahkan soda api dan spirtus, panaskan dan aduk lagi
Muncul 2 lapisan metil ester dan gliserin
Ambil metil ester yang muncul dipermukaan atas
Metil ester sebagai bahan bakar kompor.

Bahan-bahan kimia dapat dibeli di Apotik atau Toko Bahan Kimia

Menghilangkan Noda & Bercak

2008-11-29T18:58:00.000-08:00

Menghilangkan Noda-Noda Pada Pakaian Dan Kulit

Terkena Tinta
Pada kain yang kena tinta dibasahi dengan air terlebih dahulu, kemudian digosok dengan air jeruk nipis dan kapur sirih terus dicuci dengan air panas dan sabun. Demikian lakukanlah +/- 3 kali akan bersih sendiri.

Noda Lemak
Letakan kain yang jelek diatas kain yang kena lemak lalu disetrika. Kemudian dicuci dengan air panas dan sabun.

Quitex (Cat Kuku)
Dicuci dengan aceton (dapat dibeli di apotek).

Kena Cat
Dicuci dengan terpentin kemudian dengan air panas dan sabun.

Percikan Darah
Kalau masih baru dapat dihilangkan dengan larutan garam atau natrium citrat. Bila sudah mengering maka pakailah air sabun yang panas yang diberi dengan larutan natrium citrat (dapat dibeli di apotek).

Bau Bawah Merah Dan Putih
Menghilangkan bekas-bekas bawang yang tinggal di jari yaitu dengan menggosokkan potongan jeruk nipis berulang kali.

Plek Keringat
Menghilangkan plek-plek pada kain dengan larutan garam kemudian dicuci dengan air panas dan sabun.

Aspal
Dapat dihilangkan dengan bensin atau minyak tanah kemudian dicuci dengan air panas dan sabun.

Bercak dari Anggur / Minuman Keras
Dapat dihilangkan dengan air garam kemudian dicuci dengan air panas dan sabun.

Akibat Cendawan Jamur
Menghilangkan cendawan jamur pada kain dapat dihilangkan dengan larutan cuka kemudian dicuci dengan air panas dan sabun.

BREAST CANCER

2008-11-01T18:49:00.001-07:00

By Monica Morrow, M.D.,

Assoc. Prof. of Surgery

Edited by Tachsin Fernandi (additional various articles)

Cancer is still known as one of the most horrifying disease until these days. When it attacks; likely some people think of their lives and age become shorter, although technology of the latest medical developments have found some cures and techniques to defend against it. Cancer strikes people of all ages but is largely common in the middle-aged and the elderly. It occurs about equally in males and females. The disease can attack any part of the body and may spread to other parts. The sites most often affected are the skin, the digestive organs, the lungs, the prostate gland, and the female breasts.
Nearly all scientists do not know exactly why cancer develops. But they have found that heredity, environment, and lifestyle all play a role in causing the disease. They have also learned that good nutrition can help prevent certain kinds of cancer in laboratory animals. Large doses of vitamins A and C have been proved to prevent some cancers in animals. Many scientists believe that certain foods contain substances that may help prevent some cancers in people. Such foods include broccoli, cabbage, carrots, cauliflower, fruits, spinach, whole-grain breads and cereals, and some sea-food. Lessening intake of fats and increasing the intake of fiber may also help prevent some cancers from forming.
What is cancer?
Cancer is a disease in which cells multiply wildly, destroy healthy tissue, and endanger life. Every person begins life as a single fertilized egg cell. Through a complicated process of growth, division, and specialization, the egg multiplies into the trillions of cells in a healthy body. Every cell contains complex instructions that direct this process. The instructions are chemically coded in long coils of a substance called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Particular sections of DNA called genes control specific cell functions. DNA even contains genes that enable the molecule to repair itself. But as people grow older, damage can build up and destroy DNA's ability to keep up its own accuracy.
Cancer results from damage to the genes that control cell growth and division. Two important classes of these genes are called proto-oncogenes and suppressor genes. Proto-oncogenes promote cell growth or division. Damage to a proto-oncogene may transform it into an overactive form called an oncogene. Oncogenes can lead to cancer by directing a cell to multiply excessively. Scientists have identified dozens of oncogenes that contribute to cancers in many sites, including the bladder, breasts, liver, lungs, and colon.
Suppressor genes limit cell growth or division. Damage to a suppressor gene can lead to cancer by destroying that gene's ability to stop cell multiplication. About 100 kinds of cancer attack people. The disease is a leading cause of death in many countries. Cancer occurs in most other animals and in many kinds of plants as well as in people.
Breast Cancer
Breast cancer is the second largest disease that attacks women after cervix cancer. The youngest cancer patients are being reported from age of 20 – 29, the large scales are age of 40 – 49, and the oldest patients are 80 – 89 years old.

Breast cancer is an uncontrolled, potentially deadly division of cells in the breast. In the United States, breast cancer is the most common women's cancer. According to the American Cancer Society and the National Cancer Institute, an average of 1 American woman in 8 will develop breast cancer sometime during her life. Women in Africa and Asia have a lower risk of breast cancer than do women in North America and Europe. A small number of men also develop breast cancer.
The risk of breast cancer increases for all women as they grow older. A woman's risk also increases if a relative, especially her mother or a sister, has also had the disease. Scientists have found two rare abnormal genes, called BRCA1 and BRCA2, that greatly increase risk. Tests to detect these genes are available, but doctors disagree about when such tests should be used. Most women with one or two relatives who have had breast cancer do not have inherited genetic abnormalities.
A painless lump is the most common symptom of breast cancer. Doctors advise women to examine their own breasts for lumps every month. A breast X ray called a mammogram can detect many cancers before they can be felt. Most doctors recommend an annual mammogram for women over 50 years old.
Doctors usually begin treatment of breast cancer by surgically removing the tumor. When the cancer is small, a lumpectomy can preserve the breast. In this operation, a surgeon removes the cancerous lump and a margin of the normal tissue surrounding it. The breast is then treated with radiation to kill stray cancer cells. If the cancer is large, the entire breast must often be removed in a modified radical mastectomy.
In either a lumpectomy or a mastectomy, doctors also remove and examine lymph nodes from the armpit. These nodes are small masses of tissue that help the body fight disease by filtering out bacteria and other harmful particles.
To determine the best treatment, doctors test some cancer cells to see if female hormones make them grow. If the cells respond, doctors may prescribe the drug tamoxifen to block the action of these hormones. If hormones have no effect, or if the patient still has menstrual periods, doctors may use chemotherapy (drug treatment that kills cancer cells as they divide). Both tamoxifen and chemotherapy significantly reduce the risk of cancer returning.

Anticipation against Breast Cancer and other kinds of cancer:

Taking regular exercises (sport)
Eating more vegetables and fruits: they are rich sources of dietary antioxidants. Citrus fruits are a rich source of vitamin C. Vitamin E is found in vegetable oils and nuts. Foods plentiful in beta-carotene or other carotenoids tend to be deep yellow or green, such as carrots and spinach. Flavonoids occur in many fruits and vegetables. Some studies have connected a diet rich in antioxidants with a reduced risk of cancer, heart disease, cataracts, and other diseases common among older people
Examination of weight: the increasing of weight after age of 18 may face risk of breast cancer, for escalating fats in our bodies will trigger more estrogen hormone; as one of the major symptoms generates the breast cancer
Breastfeeding the babies: these activities can generally reduce the risk of breast cancer before menopause (Most women have their last menstrual period between the ages of 45 and 55. The last menstrual period marks the end of a woman's natural childbearing years. Menopause is often called the change of life)
Don't smoke: Scientists think that smoking causes about one-third of all cases of cancer, including most lung cancer. Smoking also causes many cancers of the mouth, breast, larynx, trachea, esophagus, pancreas, kidney, bladder, cervix, and some forms of leukemia. Cigarette smoke can even cause cancer in nonsmokers who live or work closely with smokers
Taking sun-bath: the rays of sun shine on our skin, they will produce Vitamin D, this vitamin shall assist breast to absorb calcium to prevent the risk of breast cancer
Keep away from being stress: Long-term stress can lead to serious illness such as cancer
Shunning or lessening intake of fats and junk food
Don't consume alcoholic drinks

PRINT

Peupeujeuh Bapa

2008-11-01T18:44:00.000-07:00

Tachsin Fernandi,
Karawang 13 Desember 2007

Deudeuh hibarna anaking,
cahaya beurang jeung peuting,
ulah pisan gampang rungsing,
kanyaah bapa saluhur bentang ti peuting.

Prak-prakan alam hirup nyata,
Lain saukur babasan carita,
regepkeun sing mangrupa tatanda,
sangkan lampah diakhir teu jadi codeka.

Anaking anu gareulis,
tuh tingali hujan girimis,
mani agem ngarampak manis,
nungtun katenang ka hate miringis.

Kembang srangenge jigana mekar,
ngagugah kasedih neundeun katilar,
kade anaking kudu sing sabar,
bari ajegkeun kahadean sakumaha ilahar.

Hegarna gunung Cereme nu jangkung,
ngayom kota sabundeureun sarupaning payung,
eta teh mangrupa siloka linuhung,
yen hirup mah kudu bisa silih tulung.

Yeuh..! kade bapa hampura,
acan bisa ngangkat kahirupan sawawa,
siga batur bruh breh dudunyaanna,
rumasa bapa heureut rijki saenyana.

Kukituna anaking sing tawekal,
ulah serab kana harta nu teu kekal,
elmu katut agama sing ngagiring panutan akal,
sabab eta mustika bagja yakin mocekal.

Eling-eling mangka eling jurunganna,
metakeun rasa sing apik tur ngolahna,
harta gambaran gede duriatna,
sabalikna saimbang kanista jero jirimna.

Itu.. Waduk Darma Kuningan katingali nguyung,
sabab caina ngalébér henteu kabendung,
nyorang hirup ulah dibawa pundung,
salila urang mumuntang kanu Maha Agung.

Endahna masjid Kubah Emas Dian Almahri Depok,
diwangun ku jalmi weruh agama nu ngolotok,
ijrih ka Sang Khalik henteu wantun ngengklok,
cirining karamat iman ka Allah jero legok.

Allah Maha Welas ka mahlukna,
guratkeun dina hate utamana,
hirup mah aya waktu tur katangtuanna,
sok geura tamengkeun agama sakuduna.

Tah kitu geuning anaking,
hirup teh ulah kajurung kupusing,
aya senang katut susah muter nguriling,
nu mantak papadan hirup sering dijieun dangding.

Allah teh Maha Suci sesebatanna,
bersih atining manah wiwilanganna,
Rohman Rohim sifat gumelarna,
jadikeun ku anaking jimat hirup saestuna.

Global Warming

2008-11-01T18:21:00.000-07:00

Edited by Tachsin F.

Global warming is an increase in the average temperature of the earth's surface. Since the late 1800's, the average temperature has increased about 0.5 to 1.5 Fahrenheit degrees (0.3 to 0.8 Celsius degree). Scientists disagree about the causes and potential impact of this warming trend.
Many scientists believe that human activities have caused the trend by enhancing the earth's natural greenhouse effect. This effect warms the lower atmosphere and surface of the earth through a complex process involving sunlight, gases, and particles in the atmosphere.
Since the mid-1800's, human activities--chiefly the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) and the clearing of land--have increased the amounts of heat-trapping atmospheric gases, called greenhouse gases. The burning of fossil fuels produces the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. Most of this burning takes place in automobiles, electric power plants, and industrial facilities. The clearing of land reduces the amount of carbon dioxide that trees and other plants remove from the atmosphere in a process called photosynthesis.
Although researchers have not yet fully proved that the increase in greenhouse gases has raised the surface temperature, many scientists consider such a relationship likely. A much smaller number of scientists argue that the increase in greenhouse gases has not made a measurable difference in the climate. These scientists say that the warming trend is a normal change in the climate system. They argue that natural processes, such as increases in the energy given off by the sun, could have caused global warming. But the greater weight of evidence suggests that an unusual climate change has occurred and that human activities are at least partly responsible for it.
The impact of continued global warming. Global warming affects many aspects of the environment, including sea levels, coastlines, agriculture, forestry, and wildlife. Continued global warming could have a beneficial impact in some areas and a harmful impact in others. For example, people could begin to farm in regions where it is currently too cold. At the same time, global warming could cause sea levels to rise and thereby increase the threat of flooding in low-lying coastal areas, many of which are densely populated.

To determine the impact of global warming, scientists must consider the rate of climate change. Many experts estimate that, due to human activities, the average surface temperature will rise between 3 and 8 Fahrenheit degrees (1.5 and 4.5 Celsius degrees) by 2100. But even a warming of 2 Fahrenheit degrees in a century would be several times faster than the typical natural rate.
A rapid and large-scale climate change could severely harm the earth's ecosystems (the living organisms and physical environment in particular areas). For example, such a change could make it difficult for many species to survive in the regions they now inhabit. Some could be forced to migrate, while others could become extinct.

Efforts to prevent global warming. Because global warming might do much harm, many scientists recommend a reduction in the emissions of greenhouse gases. The least controversial way to reduce such emissions would be to use gains in efficiency to decrease the use of energy. For example, manufacturers would adopt more efficient processes to produce goods. Makers of electrical equipment would introduce more efficient motors, light bulbs, and other devices. New manufacturing equipment and the new devices might be more costly than those they replaced. However, the savings resulting from decreased energy consumption might help make up for the extra costs. As a result, the new technologies could reduce emissions and save money.
Experts have also offered a number of more controversial strategies. For example, governments could create regulations that specify the type of technologies used or the amount of fossil fuels burned. Many policy analysts recommend that governments consider a tax on emissions of greenhouse gases.
Another option would limit the amount of greenhouse gases each nation emits. Under this plan, each country would receive emissions "permits" that could be bought and sold. Richer nations with higher emissions per person could purchase permits from poorer nations with lower emissions per person. Thus, the more developed countries would have incentives to create and use more efficient technologies, and less developed countries would receive money that could be used to aid their development.
Contributor: Stephen H. Schneider, Ph.D., Prof., Department of Biological Sciences and Institute for International Studies, Stanford Univ.

"PRINT"

Gravitation

2008-11-01T18:01:00.000-07:00

Edited By Tachsin F.

Gravitation is the force of attraction that acts between all objects because of their mass--that is, the amount of matter they are made of. Because of gravitation, objects that are on or near the earth are pulled toward it. Gravitation holds together the hot gases in the sun. It keeps the planets in their orbits around the sun, and it keeps all the stars in our galaxy in their orbits about its center. The gravitational attraction that an object has for objects near it is called the force of gravity.

Although the effects of gravity are easy to see, an explanation for gravitational force has puzzled people for centuries. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle taught that heavy objects fall faster than light ones. This view was accepted for centuries. But in the early 1600's, the Italian scientist Galileo introduced a different view of gravity. According to Galileo, all objects fall with the same acceleration (rate of change of velocity), unless air resistance or some other force slows them down.

Ancient astronomers studied the motions of the moon and the planets. But these motions were not correctly explained until the late 1600's, when the English scientist Sir Isaac Newton showed that there is a connection between the force that attracts objects to the earth and the way the planets move. Newton based his work on the careful study of planetary motions by two astronomers of the late 1500's and early 1600's--Tycho Brahe, a Dane, and Johannes Kepler, a German. When Newton was 23 years old, a falling apple caused him to question how far the force of gravity reaches. He realized that the same force that pulled the apple from the tree could hold the moon in its orbit around the earth. From laws discovered by Kepler, Newton showed how the sun's gravitational attraction must decrease with distance. He assumed that the gravity of the earth behaves the same way. Newton calculated what the force that attracts the moon toward the earth would be at the earth's surface. This force proved to be the same as the force that gave the apple its acceleration.

Newton's theory of gravitation says that the gravitational force between two objects is proportional (related directly) to the size of their masses. That is, the larger either mass is, the larger the force is between the two objects. The theory refers to mass rather than weight because the weight of an object on the earth is really the strength of the earth's gravity on that object. On different planets, the same object would have different weights, but its mass would always be the same. Also, the gravitational force is inversely (oppositely) proportional to the distance between the centers of gravity of the two objects squared (multiplied by itself). For example, if the distance between the two objects doubles, the force between them becomes a fourth of its original strength.

Newton published his theory of gravitation in 1687. Until the early 1900's, scientists observed only one phenomenon that disagreed with the predictions of the theory. This was the motion of the planet Mercury, and the disagreement was very small.

Einstein's theory of gravitation. In 1915, the German-born physicist Albert Einstein announced his theory of gravitation, the general theory of relativity. A key idea of general relativity is that gravitation is an effect of the curvature of space and time.

Although Einstein's theory involved a complete change in ideas about gravitation, it expanded upon rather than contradicted Newton's theory. In most circumstances, it produced results that differed only slightly from those calculated with Newton's theory. When Einstein's theory was used to calculate the motion of Mercury, the calculations agreed exactly with the observed motions of the planet. This was the first confirmation of his theory.

The general theory of relativity is based on two assumptions. The first assumption is that space and time are curved wherever matter or energy is present. Einstein provided equations that describe this curvature precisely. The second assumption, known as the Principle of Equivalence, states that the effects of gravity are equivalent to acceleration. To understand this principle, suppose you are in a rocket ship at rest in space--that is, without gravity or acceleration. If you drop a ball, it floats and does not fall. If the rocket accelerates upward, the ball will appear to you to fall to the floor exactly as if gravity had acted upon it. Thus, acceleration produces the same effect as gravity.

The Principle of Equivalence predicts that gravity must cause the path of a light ray to bend as the ray passes near massive bodies, such as the sun, that curve space. This prediction was first confirmed in 1919 during a total eclipse of the sun. The sun also bends and delays radio waves. This delay was measured by sending radio signals between the earth and the Viking space probes that reached Mars in 1976, providing the most precise confirmation yet of general relativity.

Predictions of general relativity. According to general relativity, massive bodies that orbit one another emit gravitational waves. This prediction was indirectly confirmed in 1978 by observations of a binary pulsar, which is a rapidly rotating neutron star that orbits a companion star. The observations indicated that the orbital period of the pulsar is decreasing. The amount of this decrease agrees with predictions by general relativity of the energy that the stars would lose by emitting gravity waves.

General relativity has been applied to cosmology, the study of the universe as a whole. The theory predicted that the universe must either expand or contract. Such observations as a shift in the wavelength of light from distant stars indicate that the stars are moving away from us and that the universe is expanding. Accurate measurement of the rate of expansion of the universe and the amount of matter may indicate whether the universe will expand forever, or whether the universe will contract.

Contributor: Joel R. Primack, Ph.D., Prof. of Physics, Univ. of California, Santa Cruz.

Additional resources

Bergmann, Peter G. The Riddle of Gravitation. Rev. ed. Dover, 1992.

Wheeler, John A. A Journey into Gravity and Spacetime. Scientific Am. Lib., 1990.

Will, Clifford M. Was Einstein Right? Putting General Relativity to the Test. 2nd ed. Basic Bks., 1993.

Zee, Anthony. An Old Man's Toy: Gravity at Work and Play in Einstein's Universe. 1989. Reprint. Macmillan, 1990.

" PRINT "

Let's guffaw with me

2008-10-03T17:11:00.000-07:00

Human intelligence
Little Monkey: Dad, I don't understand why God doesn't create us with human intelligence.
Papa-Monkey: It's something that You shall be proud of.
Little Monkey: I am not so sure.
Papa-Monkey: Human intelligence always tempts un-monkeylike thing such as corruption and bribery.

+++++++++++

Show-off Animal
A six-year-old boy, Albert asks his elder brother, Bob about dogs' habit.
Albert: I wonder why dogs always rise up one of their legs when they pee.
Bob: I believe, because dogs are the most stubborn and arrogant animals.
Albert: I don't get it, Bob!
Bob: By rising up one of their legs; They think that their kinds have the larger genitals than other animals; therefore horses feel insulted and call all dogs as the show-off animals.

+++++++++++++

Similar Custom
Different country will not always bring different culture and habit. For I have proved it that African people have similar custom on fart thing like Asian people. My curiosity on the theory happened. One day I suddenly farted near an African guy and 3 Danish people in a train wagon. I saw the African guy moved out and stared at me, he also said some African words which I didn't really understand, he probably cursed me with some African words such as, ‘asshole, shit, damn you etc'. No wonder, I had never become rich because of his curse that I carried too much asshole and shit on my shoulder.

++++++++++++++

Fart = Speed
While a Dane is driving a car along with you, you must never interrupt him by saying the word ‘fart,' although he really farts in the car; as he may speed up the car. ‘Fart' in Danish word can connote ‘speed'.

More jokes at: http://www.didiarsadi.net

Bikers' Elation

2008-09-24T07:47:00.000-07:00

Dead or live, we ride the bike for joyness.

Your manual site for bike's modification at:

http://didiarsadi.net/motor

It's "haram = forbidden" you assume yourself as a richman if there is no any Harley Davidson's stuff at home.
The bike symbolizes my honor and personal freedom therefore I would say "iskut wala taskut", Antum ma'lum! He..he..he

Abu Katir Fulus Al Thoyyibin

++++++++++

Me and My Honda
Based on my experiences, Honda has its own class in Asia, I had been using it since 1999 at the time I just returned from Denmark.

For the truth is, I honestly admire its incredible machine strength and accurate brake system.

I like travelling and touring as a part of my diversion, it feels free when I start riding my bike and hit the speed as if I'm flying high like a bird; far away from depression and life's burden, ha..ha..ha

Our Brain

2008-09-08T13:43:00.000-07:00

Edited by Tachsin Fernandi

Brain is the master control center of the body. The brain constantly receives information from the senses about conditions both inside the body and outside it. The brain rapidly analyzes this information and then sends out messages that control body functions and actions. The brain also stores information from past experience, which makes learning and remembering possible. In addition, the brain is the source of thoughts, moods, and emotions.

The brain has three main divisions: (1) the cerebrum, (2) the cerebellum, and (3) the brain stem. Each part consists chiefly of nerve cells, called neurons, and supporting cells, called glia.
Brain cells. The human brain has from 10 billion to 100 billion neurons. All of these neurons are present within a few months after birth. After a person reaches about 20 years of age, some neurons die or disappear each day. In general, neurons that die are not replaced during a person's lifetime. Over a lifetime, however, this loss equals less than 10 percent of all the neurons.

The brain's billions of neurons connect with one another in complex networks. All physical and mental functioning depends on the establishment and maintenance of neuron networks. A person's habits and skills--such as nail-biting or playing a musical instrument--become embedded within the brain in frequently activated neuron networks. When a person stops performing an activity, the neural networks for the activity fall into disuse and eventually may disappear.

HOW THE BRAIN IS PROTECTED
The hard, thick bones of the skull shield the brain from blows that could otherwise seriously injure it. In addition, three protective membranes called meninges cover the brain. The outermost membrane is the tough dura mater, which lines the inner surface of the skull. A thinner membrane, the arachnoid, lies just beneath the dura mater. The delicate pia mater directly covers the brain. It follows the folds of the brain's surface and contains blood vessels that carry blood to and from the cerebral cortex. A clear liquid called cerebrospinal fluid separates the pia mater and the arachnoid. This fluid forms a thin cushioning layer between the soft tissues of the brain and the hard bones of the skull.

The blood-brain barrier safeguards brain tissues from the damage that could result from contact with certain large molecules carried in the bloodstream. Substances in the blood reach body tissues by passing through the thin walls of tiny blood vessels called capillaries. Much of this flow occurs through the spaces between the cells that make up the capillary walls. In brain capillaries, the cells are more tightly packed than in other capillaries, and the passage of substances from blood to brain cells is carefully restricted. The brain needs some kinds of large molecules for nutrition, however. The capillary walls have certain enzymes and other properties that enable these particular molecules to pass through.

INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT THE BRAIN

Your brain had reached its full weight of about 3 pounds (1.4 kilograms) by the time you were 6 years old.

All the nerve cells your brain will ever have were present within a few months after your birth.

The left side of your brain controls movements on the right side of your body, and the right side of your brain controls movements on the left side of your body.

Chimpanzees have the largest brains, in relation to their body weight, of any animals except for human beings.

The brain does not feel pain directly because it has no pain receptors. As a result, doctors can perform some types of brain surgery on patients who are conscious.

Brain cells begin to die if they are deprived of oxygen for three to five minutes.

Women have about 10 percent more of the brain cells called neurons than men have even though men, on the average, are bigger than women and have larger brains.

Scientists do not completely understand why people dream. They think dreaming may help the brain restore its ability to focus attention, to remember, and to learn.

The brain requires about 20 percent of the body's oxygen supply though it makes up only about 2 percent of a person's total body weight.

Your brain is as individual as your face. Everyone's brain has the same physical features, but no brain looks exactly like any other brain.

BRAIN TERMS

Association cortex is any part of the cortex where information is analyzed, processed, or stored.

Axon, pronounced AK sahn, is the long extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the body of the cell.

Basal ganglia, pronounced BAY suhl GANG glee uh, are groups of neurons at the base of the cerebrum. They help control well-learned movement sequences such as walking.

Brain stem is the lowest part of the brain, connecting the spinal cord with the cerebrum.

Cerebellum, pronounced sehr uh BEHL uhm, is the part of the brain below the back of the cerebrum that regulates balance and movement and coordinates the muscles.

Cerebral hemisphere is either the left or right side of the cerebrum, the main portion of the brain.

Cerebrum, pronounced SEHR uh bruhm or suh REE bruhm, is the largest and most complex portion of the brain that controls thought and learning.

Corpus callosum, pronounced KAWR puhs kuh LOH sum, is the largest bundle of nerve fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres.

Cortex is a deeply folded and ridged layer of neurons on the surface of the cerebrum.
Dendrite, pronounced DEHN dryte,is a branching structure at the receiving portion of a neuron.

Frontal lobe is the region at the front and top of each cerebral hemisphere. These two lobes are important for reason, emotion, and judgment as well as voluntary movement.

Glia, pronounced GLY uh, are cells that form a supporting network for the neurons in the brain.

Hypothalamus, pronounced hy puh THAL uh muhs, is a region in the upper part of the brain stem that controls body temperature, hunger, thirst, and the pituitary gland.

Medulla oblongata, pronounced mih DUHL uh ahb lahng GAY tuh, is the lowest part of the brain stem, at the top end of the spinal cord, that regulates heartbeat, breathing, and other automatic functions.

Midbrain is a middle area of the brain stem that contains many important nerve pathways.
Motor cortex is the part of both frontal lobes of the brain that controls voluntary muscle movements.

Myelin, pronounced MY uh lihn, is a fatty substance that surrounds and protects certain nerve fibers.Neuron is a nerve cell. Neurons are the most important information-processing cells in the brain.

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit nerve impulses between neurons.Occipital lobe, pronounced ok SIHP uh tuhl, is the region at the back of each cerebral hemisphere that contains the centers of vision.

Parietal lobe, pronounced puh RY uh tuhl, is the middle lobe of each cerebral hemisphere between the frontal and occipital lobes. The parietal lobes contain important sensory centers.

Pons, pronounced pahnz, is part of the brain stem that joins the hemispheres of the cerebellum and connects the cerebrum with the cerebellum.

Reticular formation, pronounced rih TIHK yuh luhr, is a network of nerve cells deep within the brain stem that plays a major role in maintaining sleep or wakefulness.

Sensory cortex is any part of the brain that receives messages from the sense organs or messages of touch and temperature from throughout the body.

Somatosensory cortex, pronounced so muh tuh SENS suhr ee, is an area of the sensory cortex in the parietal lobes that receives messages of touch, temperature, and certain other bodily sensations.

Synapse, pronounced sih NAPS, is the structure where an impulse passes from one neuron to another.

Temporal lobe, pronounced TEHM puhr uhl, is the region at the lower side of each cerebral hemisphere. The temporal lobes contain centers of hearing and memory.

Thalamus, pronounced THAL uh muhs, is a structure at the top of the brain stem that serves as a relay center for sensory information.

Depression

2008-09-05T18:01:00.000-07:00

The Matters of Depression

Edited by Tachsin Fernandi

Depression is a serious mental disorder in which a person suffers long periods of sadness and other negative feelings. The term depression also describes a normal mood involving the sadness, grief, disappointment, or loneliness that everyone experiences at times. This article discusses depression as a mental disorder.

Depressed people may feel fearful, guilty, or helpless. They often cry, and many lose interest in work and social life. Many cases of depression also involve aches, fatigue, loss of appetite, or other physical symptoms. Some depressed patients try to harm or kill themselves. Periods of depression may occur alone, or they may alternate with periods of mania (extreme joy and overactivity) in a disorder called bipolar disorder. This condition is also known as manic-depressive disorder.

Psychiatrists do not fully understand the causes of depression, but they have several theories. Some psychiatrists believe that depression follows the loss of a relative, a friend, a job, or a valued goal. Many psychiatrists believe that experiences that occur during early childhood may make some people especially subject to depression later in life.

According to another theory, disturbances in the chemistry of the brain occur during depression. Brain cells communicate with one another by releasing chemicals called neurotransmitters. Some experts think that certain neurotransmitters become underactive during depression and overactive during mania. These changes in brain chemistry may be related to disturbances in the body's internal rhythms.

Treatments for depression include hospitalization, psychotherapy, drugs, and electroconvulsive (electroshock) therapy.

Hospitalization is an essential treatment for depressed patients who are suicidal.

In psychotherapy, the psychiatrist tries to understand (1) the childhood events that make a person subject to depression and (2) the events that preceded the patient's current depression. The most prescribed antidepressant in the United States is a drug called fluoxetine. Fluoxetine is marketed under the name Prozac. Lithium carbonate is a drug used in treating bipolar disorder. Electroconvulsive therapy is generally used as a treatment only for patients who fail to respond to other treatment.

Contributor: Philip A. Berger, M.D., Prof. of Psychiatry, Stanford Univ. School of Medicine.

Aborsi Di Indonesia

2008-09-02T04:57:00.000-07:00

Permasalahan Aborsi Di Indonesia Marlini Hasan Pontoh

Edited by Tachsin

Sesuai kaidah agama dan peraturan perundang-undangan yang ada di Indonesia permasalahan aborsi sangat rumit dan ilegal, tetapi justru kasus aborsi tertinggi di Asia Tenggara malah terjadi di negeri kita.
Berawal dari harian Republika, Sabtu 21 Mei 2005, diungkapkan bahwa Komisi Fatwa Majelis Ulama Indonesia (MUI) menetapkan fatwa yang menyebutkan bahwa aborsi bisa dilakukan bila kehamilan disebabkan oleh kasus pemerkosaan dan inses (hubungan sedarah). Syaratnya, aborsi hanya diizinkan bila usia janin dalam kandungan belum mencapai 40 hari. Karena, di usia kandungan itu dianggap belum ada kehidupan.
Berita ini terbilang mengejutkan, mengingat selama ini MUI menutup pintu rapat-rapat pada berbagai kemungkinan aborsi.

Kontroversi Aborsi
Masalah aborsi memang persoalan pelik di Indonesia. Setiap tahun lebih dari 2 juta aborsi terjadi di Indonesia. Dan menurut data WHO (World Health Organization) pada tahun 2000, angka itu merupakan 70 % dari seluruh kejadian aborsi yang terjadi di Asia Tenggara. Aborsi diperdebatkan antara organisasi profesi dan pemimpin agama. Wanita-wanita aktivis, secara pribadi maupun melalui LSM (Lembaga Swadaya Masyarakat), berjuang melalui berbagai cara, mulai dari mengadakan seminar, diskusi, pembuatan buku, bahkan mendesak DPR untuk mengamandemen UU Kesehatan No. 23 tahun 1992 dengan tujuan mengurangi tingginya angka kematian Ibu melalui pelayanan aborsi aman. Karena kontribusi aborsi terhadap kematian Ibu di Indonesia mencapai 50 %.

Aborsi secara umum masih diartikan sebagai tindakan pengguguran atau pengeluaran janin secara paksa. Itulah sebabnya wanita yang melakukan aborsi dan pihak yang membantunya juga dituduh sebagai pelaku kriminal. Padahal, aborsi bisa terjadi secara alamiah maupun spontan (Abortion Spontaneous) yang dikenal dengan keguguran. Sedangkan aborsi secara sengaja disebut Abortion Provocatus.

Menurut definisi WHO, aborsi secara sengaja adalah penghentian kehamilan sebelum janin bisa hidup diluar kandungan. Dan kententuan itu diambil dengan berlandaskan ilmu pengetahuan yang sangat maju, yakni beratnya tidak lebih dari 500 gram, atau usia kandungan di bawah 20 minggu. "Kalau diterapkan di Indonesia, janin seberat 500 gram pasti tidak bisa hidup. Meskipun di negeri yang sangat maju, dengan ilmu pengetahuan kedokteran yang sangat canggih, sulit untuk bertahan hidup, kalaupun ada tentu dengan segala kesulitan untuk mempertahankannya, sehingga kemungkinan janin bisa hidup normal sangat kecil," jelas Prof. Dr. dr. Sudradji Sumapradja, SpOG(K) dari Fakultas Kedokteran UI.

"Bila usia kandungan sudah lebih dari 20 minggu, maka tindakan itu tidak bisa lagi disebut aborsi, melainkan pembunuhan," tambah Sudradji. Secara agama, aborsi selalu berada di sisi gelap. Agama apa pun tak mengizinkan aborsi. Lalu bagaimana akhirnya MUI bisa mengeluarkan fatwa mengenai izin aborsi?Menurut Maria Ulfah Anshor, ketua Umum Fatayat NU, dalam tradisi Islam, kontroversi mengenai aborsi sudah terjadi didalam kalangan imam mazhab fiqih (Hukum Islam). Mazhab Hanafiyah ada yang membolehkan aborsi sebelum kandungan berusia 80 hari, tetapi ada juga yang melarang sama sekali. Sementara, ad ulama mahzab Hanabilah membolehkan aborsi sebelum mencapai batas mudghah (segumpal daging, usia kehamilan mulai 8 minggu), tapi ada juga yang 40 hari. Mazhab Syafiyah menyebut batas usia boleh dilakukan aborsi adalah usia kehamilan 42 hari sampai 120 hari, sedangkan mahzab Malikiyah mayoritas mengharamkan aborsi, tapi sebagian ada yang membolehkan sebelum usia kehamilan 42 hari. "Dengan demikian menurut fikih, sebenarnya ada peluang bagi wanita untuk memilih alternatif," jelas Ulfah.

Mengapa Pemerkosaan?
Turunnya fatwa diperbolehkan aborsi bagi wanita korban pemerkosaan, tentu dengan pertimbangan khusus. Menurut Ma'ruf Amin, Ketua Komisi Fatwa MUI, keputusan itu dikelurkan dengan dilandasi pemikiran munculnya kekhawatiran terhadap masa depan anak hasil pemerkosaan. "Diantaranya, kekhawatiran munculnya penderitaan yang ditanggung anak tersebut bia dia hidup,' tegas Ma'ruf. Selain itu menurut Ma'ruf, fatwa ini dikeluarkan karen adanya tuntutan dari masyarakat mengenai masalah aborsi.

Kami menganggap pemerkosaan adalah hal yang tidak dikehendaki, sehingga melahirkan penderitaan bagi si ibu. Janin yang dikandung tidak diinginkan, karena dalam kondisi keterpaksaan. Kami menganggap itu suatu hal yang sangat mengyusahkan, karena itu aborsi diperbolehkan," tegas Ma'ruf.
Tetapi, pasangan yang belum menikah dan ingin melakukan aborsi, tidak dimasukkan dalam fatwa ini, karena, " Zina itu perbuatan yang tidak ditoleransi. Sementara, kalau masalahnya adalah tekanan ekonomi, menurut kami, itu bukan hal yang perlu dipersoalkan. Justru merupakan suatu larangan, kalau aborsi dilakukan karena dengan alasan kemiskinan. MAsalah itu bukannya tidak bisa diatasi. Bukankah dalam hal ini negara harus ikut bertanggung jawab menangani masalah kemiskinan," demikian pendapat Ma'ruf.

Berkait dengan alasan itu, seberapa tingikah tindak kekerasan terhadap wanita, terutama masalah pemerkosaan? ternyata memang mencemaskan. Dari segi kuantitas, angka kekerasan pada wanita terus meningkat. Sepanjang tahun 2003 saja, Lembaga Bntuan Hukum Asosiasi Perempuan Indonesia untuk Keadilan (LBH APIK) menerima pengaduan, sebanyak 627 orang mengalami tindak kekerasan. Angka ini menunjukkan peningkatan dari tahun sebelumnya, yang tercatat sekitar 528 pengaduan, 12 diantaranya kasus pemerkosaan.

Apalagi, dari hasil penelitian Lembaga Kriminologi Universitas Indoensia, dari 100 kasus pemerkosaan, mayoritas pelakunya adalah orang dekat. Faktor lain adalah ketakutan korban melaporkan kasus kepada polisi karena polisi selama ini kurang menaggapi secara serius kasus kejahatan seksual. Yang paling menyesakan dada, umumnya masyarakat menyalahkan korban pemerkosaan dan menganggapnya sebagai manusia kotor yang membawa aib. Masa depan korban kasus pemerkosaan bisa hancur karena persepsi masyarakat yang buruk terhadapnya. Belum lagi bila akibat pemerkosaan tersebut ia menjadi hamil. Sungguh sebuah penderitaan yang tak terperi.

Namun untuk mencegah penyalah gunaan keputusan yang dituangkan dalam fatwa ini, Ma'ruf menegaskan, pelaksanaan aborsi terhadap janin hasil pemerkosaan tidak sembarangan bisa dilakukan. "Aborsi baru bisa dilaksanakan bila telah ada keputusan dari sebuh tim yang melibatkan keluarga, dokter, dan ulama setempat. Ini untuk memberi keyakinan bahwa wanita bersangkutan memang hamil akibat pemerkosaan," katanya.

Ulfah menyarankan, sebagai lembaga pembuat fatwa, MUI mestinya mempertimbangkan boleh dan tidaknya tindakan dengan melihat realitas yang ada di masyarakat. "Walaupun kita sepakat melindungi korban pemerkosaan, angka kematian ibu yang saat ini mencapai 307 per 100 ribu kelahiran di Indonesia, sangat tinggi dan sangat memprihatinkan. Salah satu upaya yang harus dilakukan adalah memberikan pelayanan aborsi yang aman."
Namun demikian, Ulfa tetap optimis, fatwa MUI ini diikuti revisi atau amandemen UU No. 23/1992 tentang Kesehatan dan KUHP yang berkaitan dengan Kesehatan Reproduksi Wanita. Sehingga, "prestasi" Indonesia di wilayah Asia Tenggara dalam hal aborsi, tidak bertahan.

Syarat Mutlak Aborsi Aman :

Dilakukan oleh dokter yang terlatih
Di rumah sakit yang layak untuk melakukan aborsi
Pelayanan aborsi tidak boleh disertai motivasi komersial
Dilakukan sesuai dengan prosedur, standar termasuk konseling sebelum dan sesudah tindakan aborsi
Dilakukan pada usia kehamilan tidak lebih dari 12 minggu
Dilengkapi dengan pelayanan pasca tindakan aborsi.

Sumber : Majalah Femina 2005

Family Idea - Part 02

2008-07-13T19:40:00.000-07:00

Vinegar cures the itchy sore caused by water germs
Mersi G., Jl. Kijang - Ujung Pandang

Itchiness within our fingers or feet as the sign of water germs have attacked them. To cure it, please pour some vinegar liquid onto cotton, sweep up on itchy sore. Do not hesitate to use it because vinegar liquid shall not stimulate paint. (Kartini No. 444)

Making tasty steamed rice roll (lontong)
Widiastuti Dwi SR, Jl. Teukeu Umar - Bojonegoro, Jatim

To have tasty and solid lontong result, put one kg rice in watered bowl, blended, and stirred up with one teaspoon lime (used for betel leaves mixture) for couple minutes. Preparing some banana leaves and turn upside down (using only the back side of leaves) to wrap and roll the rice. They are now ready to be steamed up. (Kartini No. 444)

The other benefit of yeast (Ragi)
Marsyah, Jl Raya Puncak - Bogor

If you want to have well done-steamed fish with softened bones inside it, please blend the smooth-grinded yeast into ingredient, then cook the fish as usual (have a good tasty menu). (Kartini No. 446)

Preserving eggs for long time without refrigerator
Iriani Dewi Moerlan, Jl. Pendidikan - Mataram

Blending one liter air and one spoon lime, stir up and pour 10 grams of salt, afterwards put the eggs into that water and it will preserve the eggs for 6 months long. (Kartini No. 446)

The Benefit of kemiri can cure poisonous animal's sting
Mrs. Nunung S, Jl. Dalam Kaum - Bandung

Take 3 to 4 pieces of candlenut (kemiri), grind them smoothly, put neatly on the sore caused by scorpions's sting or other poisonous animals. (Kartini no. 442)

Making the duck keep on laying eggs
Tengku Arivadiana, Desa dalam, Kr Baru - Kuala Simpang, Aceh Timur

Put the tuber leaves (daun keladi) into ducks' food daily, and see the result that the they will diligently lay the eggs. (Kartini no. 442)

Some Light Jokes

2008-06-23T08:27:00.000-07:00

Mispronunciation The Word, ‘Fax = Fuck'

Once Ms. Charlotte called to my friend and said, This early morning at 03.00 AM, I got a phone call from my Indonesian business partner and he spoke rudely to me, ‘Are you ready ‘Ms. Charlotte *', I am going to fuck you right now?' --- of course I replied, ‘Fuck you and fuck your mother too! Sucker!'

My friend and I laughed loudly in which it made her surprise. Then my friend told her, it was just a misunderstanding and mispronunciation from her business partner. As we believed; the problem was the lack of her partner's ability in spoken English, so he pronounced, ‘I am going to fuck you right now' instead of ‘I am going to fax you right now.' * Ms Charlotte is a false name

++++++

Who should we ask?

In some third countries. That is always a common, people ask about wealthy and status at work to a clairvoyant or a shaman. The funny is, most of the clairvoyants and shamans are poor and unemployed people and they don't have both wealthy and status at work that those people ask for. So ‘who should we ask?'

++++++++

Demonstration

Some Danes sometimes got naked when they showed their strong protests. One day there was a demonstration to protest the renovation of city hall yard, specifically the removal of Drage Springvand (Dragon Fountain), most of the crowd were East European, Arabian, Asian and African people, it seemed the crowd agreed with the protest that was led by a pretty girl as I heard that they yelled loudly, ‘100 % o.k'. I became curious, I then asked two African gentlemen, ‘Have you understood the words that she says?' they replied calmly, ‘No, we haven't. But she is very pretty and we support her to get naked 100 % o.k.'

+++++++++++

High Fever

Once Mr. Rusli and his family took sightseeing around Le Palle, Paris. Their four-year-old daughter, Rina woke up from sleep unnoticed; then she asked and pointed her index finger to a large poster of a naked man with his "THING" erect. Initially it made Mr. Rusli become clumsy, but he could overcome the situation. Here was their conversations.
Rina: Father, What is that?
Mr. Rusli: That is a man with his balance stick, and he seems very ill. Probably it's caused by high fever.
Rina: What a poor man!
Mr. Rusli: Yes…darling, his illness has enlarged his balance stick.
Rina: Yes ..Father, I can see, he really needs a woman doctor.
Father: What????

Family Idea - part 01

2008-06-23T08:12:00.000-07:00

Eliminating Fishy Smell on Duck's meat
Dra Srinani Hariyanti, Mhum - Kebumen

To eliminate the fishy smell on duck meat namely : take a living duck and force it to drink a tea spoon vinegar, let it react for couple hours. Afterwards the duck is ready to be slaughtered and cooked as the desired menu. (Kartini No. 2137)

+++++++

Preventing Prickly Heat (Biang Keringat) to Babies
Shenny Pattiasina - Kebumen

Most babies have sensitive skin upon prickly heat which furthermore it causes itchy and restless sleep.

One of methods to prevent prickly heat as follows: prepare warm water on a baby washbasin, pour two spoons of salt, stir the water up and have the baby bath. Do this treatment twice in the morning and afternoon every two days from time to time, this method could prevent prickly heat as well as stiffness and sprain. (Kartini No. 2137)

++++++++

Turmeric (Kunyit) relieves menstruation
Lucia R. Widayati, Sleman - Yogyakarta

Take one piece of turmeric, peel its skin, wash, grate, por some warm water and squeeze. Please pour a bit salt and drink it often once in a day. The recipe would relieve the pain during menstruation period. (Kartini No. 2153)

++++++++++

The Other Benefits of Turmeric
Regina Astuti - Jakarta

Turmeric has so many benefits for human's lives such as medicine for: vomiting, upset stomach, headache, fever, body odor. The treatment namely: take one piece of turmeric, peel it up, wash, grate, put into a glass, pour some honey, sugar, a bit of salt and pour 1/2 glass of warm water. Drink it once a day until the symptoms disappear completely. (Kartini No. 2162)

The Beggar Around Us

2008-06-18T20:27:00.001-07:00

Beggar's Trick

Badru always meets an old beggar twice a week. But something is really bothering him about the beggar's story, here is the detail.

An Old beggar: "please help me, my wife has died yesterday, I don't really have money to burry her or food for today.
Badru in week of 3: "I wonder how many wives do you actually have! because your wives are often claimed to be dead.

History of Motorcycles

2008-06-16T08:07:00.000-07:00

Motorcycles
By Tachsin Fernandi

Motorcycle is a two- or three-wheeled vehicle powered by a gasoline engine mounted midway between the front and rear wheels. A motorcycle has a much heavier and stronger frame than a bicycle, the vehicle from which it was developed. People in many parts of the world use motorcycles for transportation or ride them for recreation and sport. Many police departments use motorcycles for pursuit and traffic control because these vehicles can be maneuvered easily through traffic. Some fire departments use motorcycles to transport medical personnel to accident scenes. Many motorcyclists call their machines "bikes."

In the United States and Canada, motor vehicle laws affect the operation of motorcycles as well as of automobiles and other kinds of vehicles. In a few states and provinces, a motorcyclist needs only a regular driver's license. However, nearly all the states and provinces require cyclists to have a motorcycle operator's license, for which a person must pass a test. One test used by many licensing agencies is the Motorcycle Operator Skills Test (MOST). In order to pass this test, cyclists must be able to demonstrate skill in handling a motorcycle. Many states and provinces also require cyclists to wear safety helmets and protection for their eyes.

Motorcycling is popular throughout the world. In regions where gasoline is usually more expensive, such as East Asia, Europe, and South America, motorcycles are regarded as convenient and inexpensive transportation. In the United States and Canada, motorcycles are widely used for recreation, as well as for transportation to jobs. In urban areas, motorcycles help to reduce traffic congestion and air pollution.

Kinds of motorcycles. Manufacturers produce motorcycles in a variety of sizes, types, and weights. The two main kinds are (1) those designed primarily for use on streets and other paved surfaces, and (2) those intended chiefly for off-road riding. The first group consists of street and touring bikes and motor scooters. The second group includes trail bikes and a variety of other related off-road vehicles.

Street bikes are used on roads and highways for short or long trips and for in-town riding. They weigh from 235 to 500 pounds (110 to 230 kilograms) and can travel at all legal highway speeds.

Touring bikes are street bikes that carry special equipment for long-distance travel. For example, many touring bikes are equipped with windshields to provide extra protection against the wind, and compartments to carry luggage. Touring bikes weigh from 500 to 900 pounds (230 to 410 kilograms) and can usually travel at greater speeds than street bikes can.

Trail bikes can travel on rough country trails, climb hills, and cross streams. They have deeply grooved tires that provide traction on gravel and other rough surfaces. They weigh from 150 to 250 pounds (68 to 110 kilograms).

Motor scooters are not technically motorcycles, because their engine is mounted over or directly in front of the rear wheel. They are also more compact than motorcycles and designed for use at lower speeds. In addition, the driver of a motor scooter sits with both feet on a floorboard.

Minibikes and minicycles have motorcycle-type engines but weigh less and are more compact than most motorcycles. They are not built for use on paved roads.

Motorbikes include mopeds (pronounced MOH pehdz), which are started by pedaling. Mopeds have an automatic transmission, and can reach a speed of 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour.

The parts of a motorcycle. A motorcycle has five major parts: (1) the engine, (2) the transmission system, (3) the wheels, (4) the brakes, and (5) the controls. A frame of steel or chrome tubing holds them together.

The engine of a motorcycle has one to six cylinders. It operates on either a two-stroke or four-stroke cycle.

The transmission system of most motorcycles consists of four, five, or six gears. Racing models may have as many as eight speeds, and some small models have as few as two.

The wheels. Most street motorcycles have steel- or aluminum-rimmed wheels with tubeless tires similar to those on automobiles. However, many off-road bikes have rubber tubes inside the tire to hold compressed air. Motorcycle tires have a rounded tread pattern that provides the traction needed for leaning through turns. The front forks, an extension of the frame, help hold the front wheel in place. They serve as a suspension system that cushions the rider against bumps. A rear swing arm allows the rear wheel to move up and down, providing additional stability when riding over bumps.

The brakes. A motorcycle has front- and rear-wheel brakes, which work separately. The front brake supplies most of the stopping force.

The controls. The rider uses various hand and foot controls to operate the motorcycle. Most older bikes have a kick starter, but a large number of recent models are equipped with an electric starter instead. A hand twist grip controls the throttle, which regulates the speed of the engine. A hand lever on the left handlebar operates the clutch. A hand lever on the right handlebar controls the front brake, and a foot pedal controls the rear brake. Most motorcycles have a second foot control for shifting gears.

Motorcycle safety. The Motorcycle Safety Foundation in the United States and the Canada Safety Council in Canada have developed courses to promote motorcycle safety. These classes, which are offered by many community colleges, high schools, and police departments, are designed to develop good riding habits. They also stress the importance of proper cycling clothes, such as a helmet, goggles, gloves, and boots.

Motorcycling as a sport enables cyclists to compete in such events as dirt-track races, enduros (endurance races), and cross-country races. Dirt-track racing is the most popular type of motorcycle competition. It includes races run on flat, oval tracks and motocrosses, which are run on rugged courses that have jumps, hills, and other obstacles.

Most motorcycle competition is governed by the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA), which has headquarters in Westerville, Ohio. The AMA sponsors a number of annual races. A point system established by the AMA determines a racing champion each year. Cyclists receive points for winning official races or for placing high in the events. The racer who earns the most points becomes Grand National Champion.

History. The first gasoline-powered motorcycle was invented in 1885 by Gottlieb Daimler, a German engineer. He attached a four-stroke piston engine to a wooden bicycle frame. For the next few years, motorcycles remained largely experimental. During the early 1900's, they developed into useful vehicles. Today's motorcycles have the same general appearance as earlier models. But modern bikes are easier to handle, and they have stronger frames, more powerful engines, and more efficient brakes.

Article source: Gregory B. Harrison, B.A.J., Vice President, Communications, American Motorcyclist

History of Cars

2008-06-16T08:02:00.000-07:00

Cars
by Tachsin Fernandi

Streetcar is a passenger vehicle that runs on rails laid in city streets. Streetcars were originally pulled by horses and were called horsecars. Today, most streetcars are powered by electric current from an overhead power line or an electrified third rail. Some, such as those in San Francisco, are pulled by a cable.

The first horsecar lines in the United States were established in New York City in 1852. Horsecars were soon in use in most large U.S. cities, despite various problems associated with them. For example, some people objected to horsecars because of the sanitary problems caused by the horses. Many also thought the animals were overworked and mistreated. In addition, horses could not climb the steep hills in many cities.

During the 1870's and 1880's, inventors tried to find a suitable kind of mechanical power for streetcars. In 1888, Frank J. Sprague, an American engineer, demonstrated a streetcar in Richmond, Virginia, that was economical, durable, and powerful enough to ascend hills. Sprague's streetcars had motors that were powered by an electric current from an overhead power line. The current traveled from the line to the car's motor by means of a long pole. The pole had a small wheel called a shoe that slid or rolled along the line. This overhead mechanism was called a trolley, a term that was later applied to the entire vehicle.

In the late 1890's and early 1900's, electric streetcar systems based on Sprague's design were built in many U.S. cities and some small towns. But competition with the automobile and high repair and replacement costs led to the abandonment of most streetcar lines in the United States during the mid-1900's. However, such lines were maintained in other countries.

Since the 1970's, there has been renewed interest in streetcars in the United States because they use less energy per person and create less pollution than automobiles or buses do. Streetcar lines built today are often called light rail transit systems. They differ from earlier streetcar lines mainly in the location of the tracks. Most light rail tracks lie alongside the roadway. As a result, light rail vehicles interfere less with automobile traffic than do streetcars that run down the middle of the street. In addition, many of the new systems have automated braking and speed controls. For example, Vancouver, Canada, has a light rail system controlled by computer.

Today, streetcar lines operate in a number of U.S. cities, including Boston; Cleveland; Dallas; New Orleans; Newark, New Jersey; Philadelphia; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Portland, Oregon; San Diego; San Francisco; and Seattle. Canadian cities with streetcar lines include Calgary and Edmonton, Alberta; and Toronto.

Article source : Darwin H. Stapleton, Ph.D., Director, Rockefeller Archive Center.

Interesting Sites

2008-06-15T17:26:00.000-07:00

"I Gudsnavn, Allah, Den Barmhjertige, Nådige og Personlige Gud"

The Secret Beyond Matter
The Evidence of Creation
The Paradise in the Quran
The Creation of Man
The Creation of Universe
The Miracles of the Quran
The Day of Judgment
Allah Exists
The Darwinism-watch.com
The Refuted Darwinism
The Palestinian Tragedy

Black Hole

2008-06-15T08:15:00.000-07:00

Black hole is a region of space whose gravitational force is so strong that nothing can escape from it. A black hole is invisible because it even traps light. The gravitational force is so strong very near the black hole because all its matter is located at a single point in its center. Physicists call this point a singularity. It is believed to be far smaller in size than the nucleus of an atom.

Most astronomers believe that the Milky Way galaxy--the galaxy in which Earth is located--contains millions of black holes. No one has discovered a black hole for certain. However, astronomers have found strong evidence for seven black holes in the Milky Way and in a nearby galaxy.

Types. There are two types of black holes--nonrotating and rotating. Both have a spherical surface that is called an event horizon from which nothing can escape. The radius of the event horizon is used by astronomers to specify the size of a black hole. Once an object passes through the event horizon, it disappears from our universe forever.

Formation. Astronomers believe that a black hole forms when a massive star runs out of nuclear fuel and is crushed by its own gravitational force. While a star burns fuel, it produces an outward push that counters the inward pull of gravity. When no more fuel remains, the star can no longer support its own weight. As a result, the star collapses, then explodes as a supernova. The exploding star throws off its outer layers, and the remaining core continues to collapse.

If the mass of the core is three or more solar masses, the core collapses into a singularity in a tiny fraction of a second. One solar mass is the mass of the sun. However, if the mass of the core is about 1 to 2 solar masses, the core collapses to become a neutron star. This object is made up of neutrons or perhaps of elementary particles called quarks. It has a radius of about 10 kilometers (6 miles).

The size of a black hole depends on the type of the black hole and its mass. For a nonrotating black hole, the radius in kilometers equals three times the number of solar masses of material in the black hole. The radius of a black hole that is rotating at the maximum possible rate is 1.5 times the number of solar masses of material in the black hole.

Evidence for black holes. Because black holes are invisible, astronomers have only indirect evidence for their existence. Most of this evidence comes from observations of binary stars that give off X rays. A binary star is a pair of stars that orbit each other.

In a binary system, a black hole and a normal, visible star could orbit one another so closely that the black hole would strip gas from the normal star. The gas would then fall violently toward the black hole and be heated by friction among the gas atoms. Just outside the black hole, the temperature would rise to tens of millions of degrees. As a result, energy would radiate from the gas as X rays visible to X-ray telescopes.

Astronomers believe that seven binary star systems they have observed probably contain black holes. Each system is a source of intense X rays, proof that it contains either a neutron star or a black hole. In addition, the visible star orbits the collapsed star at such a high velocity that the collapsed star must be more massive than 3 solar masses.

The binary system most likely to contain a black hole is V404 Cygni, which is in the Milky Way. This system is in the constellation Cygnus, and is about 11,000 light-years from Earth. A light-year is the distance that light travels in a year--about 5.88 trillion miles (9.46 trillion kilometers). The mass of the collapsed star in V404 Cygni is at least 6 solar masses.

In 1994, astronomers used the Hubble Space Telescope to find evidence for a huge black hole in the center of the galaxy M87. This galaxy is in the constellation Virgo, and is about 50 million light-years from Earth. At the center of M87 is a whirling disk of gas. The astronomers calculated the speed of gas that is as close as 60 light-years to the center of the disk. Their calculation indicates that the gas is orbiting something with a mass of 2 billion solar masses. This object is likely a black hole that has grown to the tremendous radius of 6 billion kilometers (3.7 billion miles) by absorbing gas and stellar debris from its host galaxy.

Contributor: Jeffrey E. McClintock, Ph.D., Astrophysicist, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory.

Water

2008-06-12T16:54:00.000-07:00

Water in human world

Water is the most common substance on earth. It covers more than 70 per cent of the earth's surface. It fills the oceans, rivers, and lakes, and is in the ground and in the air we breathe. Water is everywhere.

Without water, there can be no life. In fact, every living thing consists mostly of water. Your body is about two-thirds water. A chicken is about three-fourths water, and a pineapple is about four-fifths water. Most scientists believe that life itself began in water--in the salty water of the sea.

Ever since the world began, water has been shaping the earth. Rain hammers at the land and washes soil into rivers. The oceans pound against the shores, chiseling cliffs and carrying away land. Rivers knife through rock, carve canyons, and build up land where they empty into the sea. Glaciers plow valleys and cut down mountains.

Water helps keep the earth's climate from getting too hot or too cold. Land absorbs and releases heat from the sun quickly. But the oceans absorb and release the sun's heat slowly. So breezes from the oceans bring warmth to the land in winter and coolness in summer.

Throughout history, water has been people's slave--and their master. Great civilizations have risen where water supplies were plentiful. They have fallen when these supplies failed. People have killed one another for a muddy water hole. They have worshiped rain gods and prayed for rain. Often, when rains have failed to come, crops have withered and starvation has spread across a land. Sometimes the rains have fallen too heavily and too suddenly. Then rivers have overflowed their banks, drowning large numbers of people and causing enormous destruction of property.

Today, more than ever, water is both slave and master to people. We use water in our homes for cleaning, cooking, bathing, and carrying away wastes. We use water to irrigate dry farmlands so we can grow more food. Our factories use more water than any other material. We use the water in rushing rivers and thundering waterfalls to produce electricity.

Our demand for water is constantly increasing. Every year, there are more people in the world. Factories turn out more and more products, and need more and more water. We live in a world of water. But almost all of it--about 97 per cent--is in the oceans. This water is too salty to be used for drinking, farming, and manufacturing. Only about 3 per cent of the world's water is fresh (unsalty). Most of this water is not easily available to people because it is locked in icecaps and other glaciers. By the year 2000, the world demand for fresh water may be double what it was in the 1980's. But there will still be enough to meet people's needs.

There is as much water on earth today as there ever was--or ever will be. Almost every drop of water we use finds its way to the oceans. There, it is evaporated by the sun. It then falls back to the earth as rain. Water is used and reused over and over again. It is never used up.

Although the world as a whole has plenty of fresh water, some regions have a water shortage. Rain does not fall evenly over the earth. Some regions are always too dry, and others too wet. A region that usually gets enough rain may suddenly have a serious dry spell, and another region may be flooded with too much rain.

Some regions have a water shortage because the people have managed their supply poorly. People settle where water is plentiful--near lakes and rivers. Cities grow, and factories spring up. The cities and factories dump their wastes into the lakes and rivers, polluting them. Then the people look for new sources of water. Shortages also occur because some cities do not make full use of their supply. They have plenty of water but not enough storage tanks, treatment plants, and distribution pipes to meet the people's needs.

As our demand for water grows and grows, we will have to make better and better use of our supply. The more we learn about water, the better we will be able to meet this challenge.

WATER/Water in our daily lives

Every plant, animal, and human being needs water to stay alive. This is because all the life processes--from taking in food to getting rid of wastes--require water. But people depend on water for more than just to stay alive. We also need it for our way of life. We need water in our homes--to brush our teeth, cook food, and wash dishes. We need water in our factories--to manufacture almost everything from automobiles to zippers. We need water for irrigation--to raise crops in regions that do not get enough rain.

Water in living things. Every organism (living thing) consists mostly of water. Your body is about 65 per cent water. So is that of a mouse. An elephant and an ear of corn are about 70 per cent water. A potato and an earthworm are about 80 per cent water. A tomato is about 95 per cent water.

All living things need a lot of water to carry out their life processes. Plants, animals, and human beings must take in nutrients (food substances). Watery solutions help dissolve nutrients and carry them to all parts of an organism. Through chemical reactions, the organism turns nutrients into energy, or into materials it needs to grow or to repair itself. These chemical reactions can take place only in a watery solution. Finally, the organism needs water to carry away waste products.

Every living thing must keep its water supply near normal, or it will die. Human beings can live without food for more than two months, but they can live without water for only about a week. If the body loses more than 20 per cent of its normal water content, a person will die painfully. Human beings must take in about 21/2 quarts (2.4 liters) of water a day. This intake can be in the form of beverages we drink, or water in food.

Water in our homes. In our homes, we use far more water than the amount we need simply to stay alive. We require water for cleaning, cooking, bathing, and carrying away wastes. For many people, such water is a luxury. Millions of homes in Asia, Africa, and South America have no running water. The people must haul water up by hand from the village well, or carry it in jars from pools and rivers far from their homes.

The United States has more homes with kitchen faucets and flush toilets than any other country. On the average, every American uses more than 100 gallons (380 liters) of water a day in the home. It takes about 7 gallons (26 liters) of water to flush a toilet. It takes 20 to 30 gallons (76 to 114 liters) to take a bath, and each minute under a shower takes at least 5 gallons (19 liters). It takes more than 15 gallons (57 liters) of water to wash a day's dishes, and about 40 gallons (152 liters) to run an automatic washing machine.

Water for irrigation. Most of the plants that people raise need great quantities of water. For example, it takes 115 gallons (435 liters) of water to grow enough wheat to bake a loaf of bread. People raise most of their crops in areas that have plenty of rain. But to raise enough food for their needs, people must also irrigate dry areas. The rainfall that crops use to grow is not considered a water use, because the water does not come from a country's supply. Irrigation, on the other hand, is a water use because the water is drawn from a nation's rivers, lakes, or wells.

The water a nation uses for irrigation is important to its water supply because none of the water remains for reuse. Plants take in water through their roots. They then pass it out through their leaves into the air as a gas called water vapor. Winds carry away the vapor, and the liquid water is gone. On the other hand, nearly all the water used in our homes is returned to the water supply. The water is carried by sewer pipes to treatment plants, which return the water to rivers so it can be used again.

The United States uses about 140 billion gallons (530 billion liters) of water a day for irrigation. This is enough water to fill a lake 5 miles (8 kilometers) long, 1 mile (1.6 kilometers) wide, and 130 feet (40 meters) deep. About 40 per cent of all the water used in the United States is used for irrigation. For a discussion of irrigation systems, see the article IRRIGATION.

Water for industry. Industry uses water in many ways. It uses water for cleaning fruits and vegetables before canning and freezing them. It uses water as a raw material in soft drinks, canned foods, and many other products. It uses water to air-condition and clean factories. But most of the water used by industry is for cooling. For example, water cools the steam used in producing electric power from fuel. It cools the hot gases produced in refining oil, and the hot steel made by steel mills.

About 38,000 gallons (144,000 liters) of water are required to make a ton of steel or a ton of paper. Manufacturers use about 7 gallons (27 liters) of water to refine 1 gallon (3.8 liters) of gasoline. It takes about 15 gallons (57 liters) of water to brew 1 gallon of beer.

In the United States, factories and steam-producing power plants draw about 160 billion gallons (600 billion liters) of water every day from wells, rivers, or lakes. This total accounts for 48 per cent of all the water used in the country. Power plants use 80 per cent of this water. In addition, many factories buy water from city water systems.

Although industry uses a lot of water, only 6 per cent of it is consumed. Most of the water used for cooling is piped back to the rivers or lakes from which it is taken. The water consumed by industry is the water added to soft drinks and other products, and the small amount of water that turns to vapor in the cooling processes.

Water for power. People also use water to produce electric power to light homes and to run factories. Electric power stations burn coal or other fuel to turn water into steam. The steam supplies the energy to run machines that produce electricity. Hydroelectric power stations use the energy of falling water from waterfalls and dams to produce electricity.

Water for transportation and recreation. After people learned to build crude small boats, they began using rivers and lakes to carry themselves and their goods. Later, they built larger boats and sailed the ocean in search of new lands and new trade routes. Today, people still depend on water transportation to carry such heavy and bulky products as machinery, coal, grain, and oil.

People build most of their recreation areas along lakes, rivers, and seas. They enjoy water sports, such as swimming, fishing, and sailing. Many people also enjoy the beauty of a quiet lake, a thundering waterfall, or a roaring surf.

WATER/Nature's water cycle

The waters of the earth move continuously from the oceans, to the air, to the land, and back to the oceans again. The sun's heat evaporates water from the oceans. The water rises as invisible vapor, and falls back to the earth as rain, snow, or some other form of moisture. This moisture is called precipitation. Most precipitation drops back directly into the oceans. The remainder falls on the rest of the earth. In time, this water also returns to the sea, and the cycle starts again. This unending circulation of the earth's waters is called the water cycle or hydrologic cycle.

Because of nature's water cycle, there is as much water on earth today as there ever was--or ever will be. Water changes only from one form to another, and moves from one place to another. The water you bathed in last night might have flowed in Russia's Volga River last year. Or perhaps Alexander the Great drank it more than 2,000 years ago.

The waters of the earth. The earth has a tremendous amount of water, but almost all of it is in the oceans. The oceans cover about 70 per cent of the earth's surface. They contain about 97 per cent of all the water on earth, and are the source of most precipitation that falls to earth. Ocean water is too salty to be used for drinking, agriculture, or industry. But the salt is left behind during evaporation, and the precipitation that falls to earth is fresh water.

Only about 3 per cent of the water on earth is fresh water--and most of it is not easily available to people. It includes water locked in icecaps and other glaciers, more than 2 per cent of the earth's water. About half of 1 per cent of the earth's water is beneath the earth's surface. Rivers and lakes contain only about one-fiftieth of 1 per cent of the earth's water.

Water in the air. At one time or another, all the water on earth enters the air, or atmosphere, as water vapor. This vapor becomes the life-giving rain that falls to the earth. Yet, the atmosphere contains only one-thousandth of 1 per cent of the earth's water.

Moisture in the air comes mostly from evaporation. The sun's heat evaporates water from land, lakes, rivers, and, especially, the oceans. About 85 per cent of the vapor in the air comes from the oceans. Plants also add moisture. After plants have drawn water from the ground through their roots, they pass it out through their leaves as vapor in a process called transpiration. For example, a birch tree gives off about 70 gallons (260 liters) of water a day. Corn gives off about 4,000 gallons per acre (37,000 liters per hectare) daily.

Precipitation. Vapor is carried by the air moving over the earth. The moisture-filled air cools wherever it is forced up by colder air or by mountains or hills. As the air cools, the vapor condenses into droplets of liquid water, forming clouds. The droplets fall to the earth as rain. If the vapor is chilled enough, it condenses into ice crystals, and falls as snow.

About 75 per cent of the precipitation falls back directly on the oceans. Some of the rest evaporates immediately--from the surface of the ground, from rooftops, from puddles in the streets. Some of it runs off the land to rivers. From the rivers, it flows back to the sea. The rest of the precipitation soaks into the earth and becomes part of the ground water supply. Ground water moves slowly through the ground to the rivers and returns to the sea. This movement of ground water to rivers keeps the rivers flowing during periods without rain.

How water shapes the earth. Water changes the face of the earth as it moves through the great water cycle. Water wears down mountains, carves valleys, and cuts deep canyons. It also builds deltas and straightens coastlines.

During precipitation, some water falls on highlands and mountains. The force of gravity pulls the water downhill. As the water flows to lower levels, it erodes (wears away) the soil and rocks. In this way, after many thousands of years, mountains are worn down. The water that runs off the land during precipitation cuts small channels. The small channels drain into larger channels. The larger channels drain into still larger ones, until finally the water empties into the main stream that runs to the sea. The water then flows to the sea carrying the materials it has eroded from the land.

Some of the precipitation that falls is captured in mountain glaciers. As the glaciers slide down mountainsides, they cut the mountains into sharp and jagged peaks.

The ocean also changes the face of the land. As waves pound against the shore, they cut away land and leave steep cliffs. Much of the material the waves wear away from the land is carried far out to sea. Some piles up near shore in sand bars. For more information on how water shapes the earth.

How water began. The question of how water began on earth is part of the question of how the earth itself began. Many scientists believe the earth was formed from materials that came from the hot sun. These materials included the elements that make up water.

As the earth cooled and grew solid, water was trapped in rocks in the earth's crust. The water was gradually released, and the ocean basins filled with water. Other scientists have other ideas about how the earth and water began. For a discussion of these ideas.

WATER/The water supply problem

Shortages of fresh water have troubled people throughout history. Today, they trouble people more than ever because the demand for water is growing rapidly. Many people fear that the world does not have enough water to meet all our needs. Yet the world has--and always will have--the same amount of water it has always had. All the water we use passes through the great water cycle and can be used again and again.

The total amount of water on earth is enough for all our needs. However, the earth's water is distributed unevenly. Some regions suffer a constant drought (lack of rain). Other regions generally have plenty of water, but they may be struck by drought at times. In addition, people have created many water problems by mismanaging the supply.

World distribution of water. The earth has an enormous amount of water--about 326 million cubic miles (1.4 billion cubic kilometers) of it. In a cubic mile, there are more than a million million--1,000,000,000,000--gallons, or 3.8 million million liters. However, 97 per cent of this water is in the salty oceans, and more than 2 per cent is in glaciers and icecaps. The rest totals less than 1 per cent. Most of this water is underground, and the remainder includes the water in lakes, rivers, springs, pools, and ponds. It also includes rain and snow, and the vapor in the air.

A country's water supply is determined by its precipitation. In regions with plenty of precipitation year after year, there is plenty of water in lakes, rivers, and underground reservoirs.

The earth as a whole receives plentiful rain. If this rain fell evenly, all the land would receive 34 inches (86 centimeters) a year. But the rain is distributed unevenly. For example, over 400 inches (1,000 centimeters) drenches northeastern India every year. But northern Chile may not get rain for years.

Generally, the world's most heavily populated areas receive enough rain for their needs. These areas include most of Europe, Southeast Asia, the Eastern United States, India, and much of China. But about half the earth's land does not get enough rain. These dry areas include most of Asia, central Australia, most of northern Africa, and the Middle East.

The United States has plenty of water. It averages about 30 inches (76 centimeters) of rain annually. This total is large, but it is distributed unevenly. Over 135 inches (343 centimeters) soaks parts of western Washington each year, but Nevada averages only 9 inches (23 centimeters). Most states east of the Mississippi get 30 to 50 inches (76 to 130 centimeters) of precipitation a year--more than enough to grow crops. But large regions in the West get less than 10 inches (25 centimeters). There, only a small amount of grass and shrubs can grow without irrigation.

Canada's annual precipitation is also distributed unevenly. In the southeast, it ranges from 30 inches (76 centimeters) in central Ontario to 55 inches (140 centimeters) in eastern Nova Scotia. From 14 to 20 inches (36 to 51 centimeters) of precipitation falls in most of the Prairie Provinces. Parts of the west coast get over 100 inches (250 centimeters).

Water shortages. Many regions of the world have a constant water shortage because they never get enough rain. But even a region that normally has enough rain may suddenly have a dry year or several dry years. The climates in regions that receive only light rainfall are especially changeable. Such regions can have a series of destructive dry years.

In the 1930's, one of the worst droughts in United States history struck the Southwest, an already dry region. Winds whipped the dry soil into gigantic dust storms, and most of the region became known as the Dust Bowl. Hundreds of farm families had to leave their homes. See DUST BOWL.

Periods of low rainfall alternate with periods of high rainfall from year to year and from place to place. In the 1980's, for example, drought struck the Midwestern and Southeastern United States, as well as parts of Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Ethiopia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and other countries. Meanwhile, floodwaters spilled over the land in the south-central United States and in parts of Bangladesh, China, India, and other countries.

Many regions have water shortages because the people have not prepared for a period of less than normal rainfall. These shortages could have been prevented if the people had built artificial lakes, storage tanks, and other facilities to carry them through a drought.

The United States is especially rich in water. But every year, a number of U.S. communities must ration their water. As a result, many people fear that the country is running out of water. The United States as a whole has as much water today as the land had when Christopher Columbus sailed to the New World. But rainfall patterns change. In addition, the demand for water is increasing faster in the United States than in any other country. More and more Americans want air conditioners, garbage disposers, automatic washers, and an extra bathroom. Industry also demands more water as production rises. When drought strikes, the effects can be severe.

During the 1960's, rainfall in the Northeastern United States fell below normal for several years. Many cities had to restrict the use of water. New York City suffered especially, because it is so heavily populated. To save water, people turned off their air conditioners and let their lawns wither. Restaurants tried not to serve water to customers. The city was declared a disaster area. New York City's troubles came about because the city did not have enough storage tanks, distribution lines, and other facilities to supply the city with water during a long period of light rainfall. The city improved its facilities after the drought.

Water management and conservation. Throughout history, people have attempted to increase their water supply by trying to "make rain." They have prayed to rain gods and performed rain dances. They have sprayed the clouds with chemicals to make them release their moisture. People also have always looked to the sea as a source of water (see the section Fresh water from the sea). In many cases, however, people do not need more water than they already have. They only need to manage the supply better.

Many water problems in the United States have arisen because the country has had a plentiful and easily available water supply. Water has been cheap, and people have been careless and wasteful. In the past, they dumped untreated sewage and other wastes into rivers and lakes, spoiling the water. In contrast, New York City charges many people a fixed fee for water based on the size of the house or apartment building they live in. The fee is the same no matter how much water a household uses. As a result, many people waste water. However, commercial buildings and large apartment buildings in New York City have water meters, and people pay for the water they use. The city has begun to install water meters in all homes and apartment buildings.

The supply of cheap, easily available water is shrinking in the United States. The development of new supplies will become more and more costly. It will then be cheaper to reuse water from existing supplies. Many industries reuse water. For example, most steel companies use a small amount of water over and over in a circulating cooling system.

Sewage, also called wastewater, can be treated and turned into usable water. Many communities in California, Florida, Texas, and other states irrigate crops with treated wastewater. Water reuse will become much more common in the future.

WATER/City water systems

When you turn on a faucet, you expect clean, pure water to flow out. You also expect your city to have plenty of water for its industries, for fighting fires, and for cleaning streets. The job of supplying a modern city with water is tremendous. First of all, there must be sources of plentiful water to meet the demands of a growing city. Then, the water must be purified. Next, it must be piped into every house, office building, factory, and hotel in the city. Finally, the used water must be piped away. Public water supply systems in the United States serve about 210 million people, or about 80 per cent of the population.

Sources of supply. Cities can draw fresh water from only two sources: (1) rivers and lakes, or (2) the ground. Most U.S. cities, especially those with fewer than 5,000 people, get water from underground supplies. Most larger cities get theirs from rivers or lakes. Nationwide, most Americans get water from rivers and lakes.

Rivers and lakes. Most cities that depend on rivers for their water are located on small rivers--simply because most rivers are small. The amount of water in a river can vary from time to time, depending on the rainfall. During a dry spell, a river's water level may fall sharply. Then, a city may not have enough water. For this reason, many cities that depend on rivers store water during rainy periods so they will always have a good supply. Some cities build a dam on the river and store water behind it in a reservoir. Others store water in a pond or small lake.

A city that draws its water from a lake has a natural storage reservoir in the lake itself. Lakes are fed by rivers and by waters moving through the ground. During wet spells, lakes store some of the extra water they receive. This extra water helps keep lake levels from dropping below normal during dry periods.

Ground water. Many cities are not near rivers or lakes large enough for their needs. They use water that is stored underground. This water comes from rain that soaks into the ground. As it trickles downward, it fills the spaces between grains of sand and cracks and pores in rocks. In time, the water reaches a layer of rock or other material that is watertight. The water collects above the watertight layer, and the ground becomes saturated (soaked). This saturated zone is called an aquifer. The upper limit of the zone is called the water table. Cities obtain underground water by drilling wells that reach below the water table and pumping up the water.

Uses of city water supplies. Public waterworks supply the U.S. population with a total of about 39 billion gallons (150 billion liters) of water a day. On the average, they provide each person with about 105 gallons (400 liters) a day for use in the home. They deliver about 6 billion gallons (23 billion liters) of water a day to commercial users, such as hotels and restaurants; and about 5.19 billion gallons (19.6 billion liters) a day to manufacturers. City water systems also provide water for fighting fires, cleaning streets, and sprinkling park lawns. On the average, these uses total about 5.39 billion gallons (20.4 billion liters) a day.

Another "use" of a city's water is waste. In many cities, homeowners pay a flat fee, no matter how much water they use. They do not have meters that measure the water they use. If their faucets leak, the water is wasted. Water is also wasted through leaks in a city's underground pipes. Generally, water lost through leakage is 10 to 15 per cent of a city's water use. Chicago loses about 130 million gallons (490 million liters) of water daily through waste.

Purifying and treating water. People want drinking water that is free of bacteria, sparkling clear, and without an objectionable taste or odor. Water in its natural state seldom has these qualities. So after water is drawn from a source, it is piped into a treatment plant. The plant may put the water through one or several processes, depending on the quality of the untreated water, and on a city's standards. Many cities use three basic processes: (1) coagulation and settling, (2) filtration, and (3) disinfection.

Coagulation and settling. The raw (untreated) water flows into the treatment plant and is mixed with chemicals. Some of these chemicals are coagulants. The most widely used coagulant is a fine powder called aluminum sulfate or alum. In the water, the alum forms tiny, sticky globs called flocs. Bacteria, mud, and other impurities stick to the flocs. The water then passes into a settling basin, where the flocs settle to the bottom. Coagulation and settling remove most impurities.

Filtration. The water is then passed through a filter. The filter consists of a bed of sand, or of sand and coal, usually about 21/2 feet (76 centimeters) deep on top of a bed of gravel about 1 foot (30 centimeters) deep. As the water trickles down through the filter, any remaining particles are screened out. The water then flows to huge reservoirs for a final treatment that kills bacteria.

Disinfection kills disease-carrying bacteria. Most plants disinfect water by adding a substance called chlorine. Chlorine sometimes is added before coagulation and settling, and often after filtration. Most cities chlorinate their water, even if they do not treat it in any other way.

Other processes are also used to remove unpleasant tastes or smells, or to give water special qualities. Aeration improves taste and odor. In this process, water is usually sprayed or trickled through the air. The oxygen in the air takes away the bad taste and odor. Many communities have water containing minerals that make it hard. Hard water requires lots of soap to make a lather. It also forms deposits on pipes and other equipment. Several processes can be used to soften the water. Some cities add lime or soda ash to their water to help prevent pipes from rusting. Activated carbon helps improve the taste and odor and remove toxic chemicals. Many communities add a substance called fluoride to their water to help reduce tooth decay.

Distributing water. The treated water flows to a pumping station, where it is pumped into large cast iron pipes called water mains. Water mains run beneath the streets. They carry water to every fire hydrant, and connect with smaller pipes that lead to every home, office building, factory, and restaurant. The pumping station sends the water into the mains under enough pressure to carry it to every faucet. This pressure is usually so high that you cannot hold back the water by putting your finger under a fully opened faucet.

Sometimes the demand for water may be too great for the pressure a pumping station can supply. Then, water may only trickle from the faucets. This can happen on a hot summer day when many people in the neighborhood are watering their lawns or filling backyard pools. The water pressure may also fall when fire fighters use a large amount of water to fight a fire.

Most cities pump water into elevated storage tanks to help keep their water pressure high at all times. The tanks are built on hills, or they are tall water towers. When water is released from these tanks, gravity pulls the water downward, giving it the pressure to rush through the water mains.

Disposing of used water. Most of the water in our homes is used to carry away wastes. This water, and the wastes it carries, is called sewage. Factories also use water to wash away such industrial wastes as acids and greases. In most U.S. cities, a piping system under the streets carries away the sewage from homes, factories, hotels, and other buildings. This system is called a sewerage system.

Sewage has a bad odor. But more important, it contains disease-producing bacteria. Most cities have treatment plants that clean sewage water and kill the bacteria in it. The treated water can then be returned to a river, stream, or lake. To learn how sewage is treated, see the SEWAGE article.

Almost all of the sewage in the United States undergoes some type of sewage treatment. Only a little of the sewage is dumped untreated into rivers. The dumping of untreated sewage causes serious problems for the environment and for cities downstream that take their water from the same rivers.

WATER/Fresh water from the sea

About 97 per cent of the water on earth is in the salty oceans. In their thirst for water, people have looked longingly throughout history at this endless supply. Some brackish (slightly salty) water is found inland. Today, more than ever, many people believe that desalting ocean water and brackish water holds the answer to the ever-increasing demand for fresh water in many areas.

The salt in seawater is mostly the same substance as common table salt. A person can safely drink water that contains less than 1/2 pound of salt to 100 pounds of water, or 0.5 kilogram to every 100 kilograms. But seawater has about seven times this amount of salt. A person who drinks only seawater will eventually die. The body's cells will dehydrate (dry out) as they try to get rid of the excess salt from the seawater. Nor can people use seawater in agriculture or industry. It kills most crops, and quickly rusts most machinery.

People have found many ways to desalinate (remove the salt from) seawater and brackish water. Desalination offers hope of relieving water shortages near the seacoasts. However, desalination does not hold the answer to all of the earth's water problems. Even if the oceans contained fresh water, people would still have to face such problems as pollution, flood control, and water distribution.

The desalination processes used most commonly today are distillation, reverse osmosis, and electrodialysis. These processes produce fresh water from salt water.

Distillation is the oldest method of turning salt water into fresh water. Most ocean ships use it to obtain drinking water. Seawater can be distilled simply by boiling it in a teapot, and piping the steam into a cool bottle. The steam rises, leaving the salt behind. As the steam cools in the bottle, it condenses into fresh water.

Every day, the sun evaporates millions of tons of water from the ocean's surface. The water vapor then condenses and falls back to earth as fresh water. For centuries, people have copied nature and used the sun's heat to distill seawater. Two thousand years ago, Julius Caesar used solar distillation in Egypt to obtain drinking water for his soldiers.

Solar distillation can be done by filling a shallow basin with seawater and covering it with a transparent plastic dome, or a sloping sheet of glass. The salt water turns to vapor under the sun's heat. The vapor rises until it hits the underside of the dome or glass, where it condenses. The fresh water runs down into collecting troughs. This type of distillation produces little water. In one day, such a basin in a sunny climate can produce only about a pint of water per square foot (5 liters per square meter) of the basin's surface area. Solar distillation is not a commonly used method of distillation because it is expensive. The cost stems from the fact that this method requires the use of an enormous land area in order to produce sufficient quantities of water. Solar distillation also is less efficient in operation than other methods of distillation.

Most modern distillation plants use a process called multistage flash distillation. This is a type of the age-old method of boiling and condensation. In flash distillation, preheated seawater flows into a large chamber in which the pressure is low. The low pressure causes some of the water to flash (turn quickly) into steam. The steam is condensed into salt-free water. The seawater passes through several distillation chambers. Each of the chambers has a lower pressure than the previous chamber. Often, the final water is so pure that it is tasteless, and some salt must be tossed back in to give it flavor. The desalting plant at the United States naval base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, uses this process. It produces more than 1 million gallons (3.8 million liters) of fresh water a day.

Reverse osmosis is a widely used method for desalting seawater and brackish water. In normal osmosis, a less concentrated liquid flows through a membrane into a more concentrated liquid. Thus, if salt water and fresh water are separated in a chamber by a special semipermeable membrane, the fresh water will flow through the membrane into the salt water. However, if enough pressure is placed on the salt water, this normal flow pattern can be reversed. Fresh water will then be squeezed from the salt water as it passes through the membrane, leaving the salt behind. The reverse osmosis desalting process works in this way.

A desalting plant at Cape Coral, Fla., uses reverse osmosis. This plant can produce about 14 million gallons (53 million liters) of fresh water a day.

Electrodialysis is used chiefly to desalt brackish ground water and water from estuaries (river mouths). Electrodialysis is based on the fact that when salt is dissolved in water, it breaks up into ions (electrically charged particles) of sodium and chloride. Sodium ions carry a positive charge, and chloride ions carry a negative charge.

Electrodialysis uses a large chamber divided into many compartments by stacks of thin plastic membranes. Two types of membranes are used, and they are used in pairs. One type allows only positive ions to pass through it. The other lets only negative ions through. One of the end compartments contains a positive electrode (electrical pole). The other end compartment contains a negative electrode.

When an electric current is sent through the water, the negative ions are drawn through the membranes permeable to negative ions toward the positive electrode. The positive ions are drawn through the membranes permeable to positive ions toward the negative electrode. Thus, the salt in every other compartment is drawn off, leaving fresh water.

A desalting plant on Sanibel Island, Fla., uses the electrodialysis process. This plant produces about 2 million gallons (7.6 million liters) of fresh water daily.

Other desalting processes are also being studied. During the 1970's, several plants experimented with freezing as a method of desalination. When seawater freezes, the ice crystals produced are pure water in solid form. The salt is separated and trapped between the ice crystals. There are several freezing processes that may be used to desalt water. The main problem lies in separating the ice crystals from the salt. This is usually done by washing off the salt with fresh water. The ice is then melted and becomes fresh, liquid water. High costs and engineering problems have prevented the widespread commercial use of freezing as a desalting method.

The future of desalting. All methods of desalination are costly, largely because desalting plants use large amounts of energy, and energy is expensive to produce. In addition, plants must pay to dispose of the salt that is removed during the desalination process. It costs from about $4 to about $7 to produce 1,000 gallons (3,800 liters) of fresh water from seawater. The cost depends on such factors as the capacity of the treatment plant and its location. Desalting brackish water costs less than desalting seawater. Engineers and scientists are continuing to work on the development of less expensive methods of desalination.

The thousands of desalting plants around the world together produce more than 31/2 billion gallons (13 billion liters) of fresh water each day. A large facility, such as the plant in Al Jubayl, Saudi Arabia, can produce about 250 million gallons (950 million liters) of fresh water daily. Although desalting plants meet only a small part of the world's daily demand for fresh water, they are essential to millions of people.

Many desalting plants are small facilities that serve isolated military posts, oil-drilling crews in deserts, island resorts, and industrial plants. The largest number of plants are in the Middle East, where fresh water sources are scarce. As the cost for desalting water drops, more and more towns and cities may begin using desalted water.

WATER/What water is and how it behaves

Water is not only the most common substance on earth, it is also one of the most unusual. No other substance can do all the things that water can do. Water is an exception to many of nature's rules because of its unusual properties (qualities).

The chemistry of water. Water consists of tiny particles called molecules. A drop of water contains many millions of molecules. Each molecule, in turn, consists of even smaller particles called atoms. Water molecules consist of atoms of hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen and oxygen by themselves are gases. But when two atoms of hydrogen combine with one atom of oxygen, they form water.

Even the purest water contains substances besides ordinary hydrogen and oxygen. For example, water contains very tiny portions of deuterium, a hydrogen atom that weighs more than the ordinary hydrogen atom. Water formed by a combination of deuterium and oxygen is called heavy water. Water is a combination of several different substances, but these substances make up only a small fraction of it.

The properties of water. Water can be a solid, a liquid, or a gas. No other substance appears in these three forms within the earth's normal range of temperature. The molecules that make up water are always moving, and the form water takes depends on how fast they move. The molecules in solid water (ice) are far apart and almost motionless. The molecules in liquid water are close together and move about freely. The molecules in water vapor, a gas, move about violently and bump into one another.

Ice. Most substances contract as they grow colder. But when water is cooled, it contracts only until its temperature reaches 39 °F. (4 °C). Water expands when it becomes colder than 39 °F. For this reason, when ice forms at 32 °F. (0 °C), it floats on liquid water. If water contracted upon freezing, any volume of ice would be heavier than an equal volume of liquid water. Ice would then sink. If ice sank, the earth would become a lifeless arctic desert. Each winter, more and more ice would pile up on the bottom of lakes, rivers, and oceans. In summer, the sun's heat could not reach deep enough to melt the ice. Water life would die. The hydrologic cycle would slow down. In time, all of the water would turn to solid ice, except perhaps for a thin layer of water over the ice during the summer.

Liquid. Water is a liquid at temperatures found in most places on the earth. No other common substance is liquid at ordinary temperatures. In fact, the temperatures at which water is a liquid are unusual. Water is a liquid between 32 °F. (0 °C), its freezing point, and 212 °F. (100 °C), its boiling point. But substances with a structure like that of water are not liquid in this temperature range. These substances include gases that contain two atoms of hydrogen, plus an atom of the elements tellurium, selenium, or sulfur. If water behaved like these close relatives, it would be a liquid between about -148 °F. (-100 °C) and -130 °F. (-90 °C). In that case, there would be no liquid water on earth because the earth's temperatures are far higher than -130 °F.

Water weighs about 62.4 pounds per cubic foot (1 kilogram per liter). Scientists compare the weight of other substances with the weight of water to find the specific gravity of the other substances.

Vapor. If an uncovered glass of water stands for a few days, the water will gradually disappear because the water molecules are moving constantly. Those at the surface break free of those below and enter the air as vapor. The higher the temperature of the water, the faster it evaporates, because the water molecules move faster.

Water can also be turned into vapor by boiling it, and creating steam. It takes an enormous amount of heat to produce steam. Water boils at 212 °F. (100 °C). But when water reaches the boiling point, it does not immediately turn into steam. First there is a pause, during which the water absorbs additional heat without any rise in the temperature. This heat is called latent heat. More than five times as much heat is required to turn boiling water into steam as to bring freezing water to a boil. Thus, steam holds a great amount of latent heat energy. People use this energy to run machinery.

Water vapor in the air also holds a tremendous amount of latent heat energy. This energy is released when the vapor cools and condenses, and falls as rain. The high latent heat of water is related to water's remarkable heat capacity.

Heat capacity is the ability of a substance to absorb heat without becoming much warmer itself. Water has a greater heat capacity than any other substance except ammonia. To illustrate water's unusual heat capacity, imagine a pound of water, a pound of gold, and a pound of iron--all at -459.67 °F. (-273.15 °C). This is absolute zero, the temperature at which a substance supposedly contains no heat at all. If all three substances were heated and each absorbed the same amount of energy, the gold would melt at 2016 °F. (1102 °C). But the ice would still be at -300 °F. (-184 °C). When the iron began to melt at 2370 °F. (1299 °C), the ice would finally have reached 32 °F. (0 °C).

Surface tension is the ability of a substance to stick to itself and pull itself together. Water's surface tension is extremely high. A dripping faucet shows how water sticks to itself. As the water drips, each drop clings to the faucet, stretches, lets go, and then snaps into a tiny ball. Water molecules cling together so tightly that water can support objects heavier than itself. For example, a needle or a razor blade can float on water. Insects can walk on water. Water can also stick to other substances, such as cloth, glass, and soil. By sticking to these substances, water wets them.

Capillarity is the ability of a liquid to climb up a surface against the pull of gravity. You can see water's climbing ability in a glass of water. The water is higher around the edges, where it touches the glass. The capillarity of water helps it circulate through soil, and up through the roots and stems of plants. It also helps circulate blood, which is mostly water, throughout our bodies.

Dissolving ability. Water can dissolve almost any substance. It dissolves the hardest rocks as it runs over the land and seeps through the ground. In time, it carries the dissolved materials to the oceans. Water also dissolves the nutrients that all living things need. Water dissolves and carries the nutrients in the soil to plants and to the cells within plants. Water also dissolves the food that people and animals eat, and then carries this food to the cells.

How water is held together. Water's unusual properties depend on the forces that hold it together. These forces are (1) chemical bonds and (2) hydrogen bonds.

Chemical bonds are the forces that hold the two hydrogen atoms and the one oxygen atom together in a water molecule. Each hydrogen atom has one electron whirling in orbit around its nucleus. But each of these atoms has room for two electrons. The oxygen atom has six electrons in its outer orbit, but it has room for eight. The hydrogen and oxygen atoms each fill their empty spaces by sharing their electrons. The two electrons from the two hydrogen atoms enter the orbit of the oxygen atom. At the same time, two electrons from the oxygen atom fill the empty spaces in the two hydrogen atoms. The resulting water molecule is an extremely tight structure.

Hydrogen bonds are the forces that link water molecules together. Water molecules have a lopsided shape because the two hydrogen atoms bulge from one end of the oxygen atom. The hydrogen end of the water molecule has a positive electric charge. At the opposite end, the molecule has a negative charge. Water molecules link together because the positive and negative charges attract. The positive ends of water molecules attach to the negative ends of other water molecules, whose positive ends attach to the negative ends of still other water molecules.

WATER/Water and the course of history

Water and civilization. Water has been vital to the development and survival of civilization. The first great civilizations arose in the valleys of great rivers--in the Nile Valley of Egypt, the Tigris-Euphrates Valley of Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley of India and Pakistan, and the Huang He Valley of China. All these civilizations built large irrigation systems, made the land productive, and prospered.

Civilizations crumbled when water supplies failed or were poorly managed. Many historians believe the Sumerian civilization of Mesopotamia fell because of poor irrigation practices. Salt in irrigation water is left behind during evaporation, and tends to build up in the soil. This can be avoided by washing the salt away with extra water. But if the land is not well drained, it becomes water-logged. The Sumerians failed to achieve a balance between salt accumulation and drainage. The salt and excess water harmed their crops. Farm production gradually declined, and food shortages developed. With the collapse of agriculture, the Sumerian civilization fell.

The ancient Romans built aqueducts, canals, and reservoirs throughout their empire. They turned regions along the coast of northern Africa into prosperous civilizations. After the Romans left, their water projects were abandoned. Today, these places are desert.

The challenge of today, as in ancient times, is for people to make the best use of water. But the challenge is greater than ever before because more and more water is needed as industry and population grow. The earth has enough water to meet the growing demand, but the water is distributed unevenly. Also, people waste and pollute water and manage it poorly in other ways.

People are beginning to realize how precious water is, and how necessary it is to understand water problems in order to solve them. During the late 1960's and the 1970's, the United States government and individual state governments established various antipollution programs. In addition, the federal government and private companies worked to improve processes for desalting seawater.

Nations have begun to cooperate with one another in trying to solve water problems. In 1965, the First International Symposium on Water Desalination was held in Washington, D.C. At this conference, representatives from more than 60 countries shared their knowledge of desalting methods.

Since 1965, about 70 nations have taken part in the International Hydrological Decade, a program directed by the United Nations to promote scientific research on water resources. A United Nations Water Conference was held in 1977 to help plan more efficient ways of using and conserving the world's water supply. (Edited by Tachsin)

Contributor: Thomas M. Keinath, Ph.D., Dean, College of Engineering, Clemson Univ.

WATER/Study aids

Additional resources

Level I

McClymont, Diane. Water. Garrett Educational, 1991.

Robbins, Ken. Water: The Elements. Henry Holt, 1994.

Sauvain, Philip A. Water. New Discovery Bks., 1992.

Seed, Deborah. Water Science. Addison-Wesley, 1992.

Walker, Sally M. Water Up, Water Down. Lerner, 1992.

Walpole, Brenda. Water. Garrett Educational, 1990.

Level II

Allaby, Michael. Water: Its Global Nature. Facts on File, 1992.

Clarke, Robin. Water: The International Crisis. 1991. Reprint. MIT Pr., 1993.

Gardner, Robert. Experimenting with Water. Watts, 1993. Water: The Life Sustaining Resource. Messner, 1982.

Morgan, Sally and Adrian. Water. Facts on File, 1994.

Watson, Lyall. The Water Planet. Crown, 1988.